C.J. Adrien's Blog, page 6

Did the Vikings Create Trade Networks, or Just Steal Them?

Silver denier of West Frankish king Charles the Bald (AD 840-77) was found in Puddington. Photo Credit: Claire Downham.

The discovery of three silver deniers from the reign of Charles the Bald in regions around the Irish Sea—Puddington in Cheshire, Llanbedrgoch in Anglesey, and the famed Cuerdale Hoard in Lancashire—may provide crucial evidence of a trade connection between the Irish Sea and the Bay of Biscay by the 840s, well within the Viking Age. Minted in Melle, France, these coins are tangible markers of a trade network that may have extended across disparate regions. Notably, the presence of one of these coins in the Cuerdale Hoard—a massive collection of Viking silver—strongly implies that this trade network would have at least been in part under Viking control by this period. This prompts an essential question: Did the Vikings establish this trade or co-opt an existing system that preceded their involvement?

We must examine the evidence for preexisting trade routes and cultural links to answer this. Irish-tradition monasteries, which spread from Ireland to northern France in the 6th and 7th centuries, played a pivotal role in early medieval contacts and commerce. These monastic centers, connected by a shared religious heritage and economic activity, may have served as hubs for exchanging goods such as manuscripts, wine, salt, and silver. Such a network would have predated Viking involvement, particularly in the Bay of Biscay region. These monasteries may not have been simple centers of faith but integral nodes in a more extensive trade system.

This context offers a plausible explanation for one of the Viking Age’s earliest mysteries: why the Vikings, after their initial raid on Lindisfarne in 793 and Iona in 795, leaped from the Irish Sea to the Bay of Biscay as early as 799. Noirmoutier, an island off the western coast of France, was the site of one of the first recorded Viking raids outside the British Isles. Why bypass closer and potentially richer targets, such as Frisia or Normandy? The answer may lie in the existing trade connections between Irish-tradition monasteries in Ireland and those in the Bay of Biscay. The shared monastic culture and their well-established trade network would have provided the Vikings with a clear roadmap, leading them directly to Noirmoutier, a significant hub for salt production and trade.

By targeting Irish-tradition monasteries, the Vikings may have exploited a preexisting network that was both economically valuable and geographically expansive. The raid on Noirmoutier in 799, just six years after Lindisfarne, may demonstrate that the Vikings were not merely raiding at random but strategically following well-trodden trade and communication paths. These same paths may have guided their raids and expansions deeper into France and beyond.

By the 840s, as evidenced by the coins found around the Irish Sea, the Vikings had gone beyond merely exploiting this network—they had co-opted it entirely. They integrated into the existing trade systems, controlling and profiting from the movement of goods such as silver, salt, and other high-value commodities. The silver deniers of Charles the Bald serve as markers of this transformation, revealing how the Vikings transitioned from raiders to power players in the economic systems of the early medieval world.

This reexamination of the evidence reframes the Viking Age as not solely an era of disruption but also an opportunistic adaptation. The Vikings did not build their trade networks in isolation; instead, they tapped into and eventually dominated systems laid down by others—particularly the Irish monastic communities. Their early raids on Lindisfarne, Ireland, and Noirmoutier highlight this strategic approach, where violence and commerce intersected to reshape the medieval world. The silver coins unearthed around the Irish Sea provide a glimpse into this complex and evolving relationship, marking the Vikings’ transition from outsiders to integral participants in a preexisting exchange network.

The Coin Finds: Mapping the Network

The silver denier discovered in Puddington, Cheshire, was unearthed in 1993 and is currently held at the Grosvenor Museum in Chester. This coin provides tangible evidence of the far reach of Carolingian silver into what is now northern England. Similarly, the discovery of an identical coin at Llanbedrgoch in Anglesey, found during excavations in the 1990s, is held by the National Museum of Wales. Llanbedrgoch is known for its Scandinavian connections, making this find particularly significant in linking the Irish Sea trade to broader networks. Finally, the inclusion of similar coins within the Cuerdale Hoard, discovered in 1840 along the River Ribble in Lancashire, now housed in the British Museum, adds another layer to this narrative. The hoard is one of the largest Viking-era silver hoards ever found, containing over 8,000 items, including ingots and coins.

Theories surrounding these findings suggest that the circulation of Melle-minted coins reflects robust trading activity between the Irish Sea and the Bay of Biscay during the Viking Age, likely centered on high-value commodities like wine, salt, and precious metals. These coins also hint at the integration of Viking trade into earlier networks established by monastic communities. While they do not directly prove monastic trade before the Viking Age, their presence strongly suggests a continuation and expansion of these routes, which Vikings may have exploited for commerce and raiding.

The Monastic Trade Network: Bridging the Bay of Biscay and the Irish Sea

Long before Norse longships plied these waters, the Irish monastic network had laid the foundation for transregional exchange. Irish monasteries, known for their scholarship and missionary zeal, were among the most influential institutions in early medieval Europe. These religious centers spread Christianity and facilitated trade, acting as hubs of economic activity.

One key player in this network was the Monastery of St. Philbert on Noirmoutier, a small island off the coast of western France. Founded in the early 8th century by St. Philbert, this monastery was deeply rooted in the Irish monastic tradition of St. Columban. It thrived on salt production, a valuable commodity that became central to its trade activities.

Irish Monasticism and Its Spread

The Columban tradition of monasticism, named for St. Columban, originated in Ireland and emphasized asceticism, scholarship, and missionary work. Irish monks, driven to spread Christianity, established monasteries across Europe. Luxeuil Abbey in present-day France was a notable center founded by Columban in 590. From Luxeuil, the Columban tradition radiated outward, influencing the foundation of numerous monasteries, including St. Philbert’s.

Irish monks brought with them not only their faith but also a culture of trade. Monasteries exchanged manuscripts, relics, wine, and other goods. The connection between Ireland and France was further cemented through these networks.

St. Philbert and the Irish Connection

St. Philbert’s story epitomizes the deep connections between Irish and Frankish monasticism. Born in the Frankish kingdom, Philbert followed the Columban tradition at Rebais Abbey, a monastery influenced by Irish practices. Inspired by Columban’s teachings, he established his monastery on Noirmoutier, blending Irish asceticism with Frankish monastic customs.

Noirmoutier’s salt production became a key economic driver. The Vita Philiberti, the saint’s hagiography, even records an instance of a ship laden with salt departing from Nantes, destined for Ireland. This small detail underscores the reality of trade between Noirmoutier and Irish monasteries, where salt was essential for preserving food and supporting local economies.

The Vikings and the Monastic Network

By the late 8th century, Viking raids began disrupting this network, but there is a strong argument to be made that the Norsemen initially followed the paths laid out by Irish monks. Monastic sites, rich in wealth and centrally located, were natural targets for Viking raiders. However, it is equally plausible that these routes guided the Vikings. The path from Lindisfarne to Ireland and then to the Bay of Biscay could have been discovered by Norse traders in the years preceding the first raids or followed by raiders, offering them access to established trade networks and resources such as Noirmoutier’s salt.

The raid on Noirmoutier in 799, just six years after the infamous attack on Lindisfarne in 793, suggests that the Vikings were not randomly targeting isolated locations but following a well-established trade and communication network instead. This early use of monastic trade routes may have given the Vikings a strategic advantage in their subsequent raids and expansions.

Rediscovering a Forgotten Network

The connections between the Irish Sea and the Bay of Biscay may not have been created by the Vikings but by Irish monks and their Frankish counterparts. These early medieval pioneers may have established a network that spanned seas and cultures through trade, scholarship, and missionary work, laying the groundwork for the interconnected world that the Vikings later exploited and expanded.

The silver deniers of Charles the Bald, the monastic salt trade from Noirmoutier to Ireland, and the spread of Irish monasticism all point to a vibrant exchange between these regions. By exploring these links, we can better understand the Viking Age and the centuries that preceded it.

As we continue to study these networks, it may come to light that many Viking trade routes may have been inherited (or stolen) from their monastic predecessors. It is a topic worthy of further exploration and one that figures prominently in my research, the precis of which I have shared in the article titled

The Viking Island.

Why Are There So Few New Viking Finds in France Compared with the UK and Scandinavia?

A recent conversation on the Vikingology podcast with Dr. Christian Cooijmans, author of Monarchs and Hydrarchs, raised an intriguing question: why are new archaeological finds related to the Vikings so rare in France compared to the UK and Scandinavia? Despite its rich Viking history, particularly in regions like Brittany and Normandy, France has yielded fewer discoveries than the U.K. and Scandinavia in recent decades. This disparity reflects historical differences and modern cultural and legal factors that shape archaeological practices.

Viking Activities in France

The Viking Age left a profound mark on France, particularly in the ninth and tenth centuries. Brittany, a region with deep cultural and linguistic ties to the Celtic world, became a frequent target for Viking raids due to its strategic coastline and access to key trade routes and resources (such as salt). Norse raiders established temporary bases and, at times, more permanent settlements, interacting with local populations in ways that influenced both groups. The Breton resistance to Viking incursions, as well as occasional alliances, adds complexity to this history. Normandy, named after the Norsemen, is the most well-known example of Viking integration, but Brittany’s role in this narrative is equally significant and remains underexplored archaeologically. In no uncertain terms, the experience of these regions of the Viking Age is no less than in neighboring England. Yet, there exists a significant disparity in the frequency of new finds.

France’s Archeological Potential

One of the great strengths of France’s archaeological potential lies in its abundance of historical sources. Medieval chronicles, such as those by Dudo of Saint-Quentin, monastic records, and royal annals, offer detailed accounts of Viking raids, settlements, and interactions with local populations. In contrast to the UK and Scandinavia, which rely on fewer written sources often supplemented by oral traditions, France’s rich documentary history should theoretically guide archaeologists to more frequent and precise discoveries. Yet, despite this advantage, new finds remain elusive. This disconnect suggests that something beyond the availability of historical records prevents discoveries, pointing to modern practices and regulations—such as France’s strict limitations on metal detecting—as potential factors hindering progress.

Some Past Archaeological Finds of Note

France has produced notable archaeological finds, though discoveries in other regions often overshadow them. For instance, the ship burial site on the Île de Groix, excavated in June 1906 by archaeologists Louis Le Pontois and Paul du Chatellier, offers evidence of a broader and more permanent Norse presence. Similarly, the Camp de Péran, located in Plédran, Côtes-d'Armor, is a significant archaeological site in Brittany with a history of multiple occupations, including during the Viking era. The site, known locally as "Pierres Brûlées," was first studied between 1820 and 1825 by A. Maudet de Penhouët and F. Duine. It features remnants from the Iron Age, the Gallo-Roman period, and the Middle Ages, with notable fortifications attributed to Viking settlers. The site's strategic location and defensive structures suggest it served as a fortified settlement during the Viking occupation of the region. Despite these fascinating sites pointing to a wealth of potential discoveries beneath the surface of the French countryside, discoveries are infrequent, often constrained by a centralized and bureaucratic approach to archaeology.

French Archaeological Culture vs. the UK

French archaeological culture contrasts significantly with the UK and Scandinavia, where private and public institutions often collaborate to fund and conduct digs. In the UK, archaeology benefits from a decentralized system that allows for a more flexible and responsive approach to exploration. Public engagement is also more pronounced, with initiatives encouraging amateur involvement. France, by contrast, centralizes archaeological oversight under state institutions such as INRAP (Institut national de recherches archéologiques préventives). While this ensures rigorous standards and heritage protection, it can also slow the pace of exploration and limit opportunities for non-professionals to contribute.

How Metal Detecting Has Bolstered Finds in the Anglophone World and Scandinavia

One of the most striking differences lies in the role of metal detecting. In the UK and Scandinavia, metal detecting has played a transformative role in uncovering historical artifacts. Enthusiasts armed with metal detectors have made some of the most significant discoveries in recent decades, including hoards of Viking silver and Anglo-Saxon treasures. These finds often result from partnerships between amateur detectorists and professional archaeologists, creating a dynamic that blends citizen science with academic rigor.

During a visit to the island of Noirmoutier in 2019, I witnessed firsthand how modern tools like metal detectors and ground-penetrating sonar can complement traditional archaeology. A team sponsored by the local historical heritage group L’Association des Amis de Noirmoutier (of which I am a member) investigated whether anything new could be found at an existing Gallo-Roman villa site. Although the effort yielded no new artifacts, the potential was palpable. If regulated effectively, such technological approaches could open new avenues for discovery in France. Unfortunately, amateur metal detecting is illegal there.

Why Metal Detecting Is Illegal in France

In France, metal detecting is highly restricted. A 1941 law prohibits using metal detectors without explicit authorization, reflecting concerns about looting and the destruction of archaeological context. While these concerns are valid, the law has also stifled potential discoveries. France’s strict legal framework prioritizes heritage protection but limits public engagement in archaeology, leaving fewer opportunities for grassroots discoveries. All attempts to amend this law have come up short despite vocal groups' efforts to tap into France’s archeological potential.

What Can Be Done to Increase Finds in France

Several measures could be considered to increase archaeological finds in France. Allowing regulated metal detecting, similar to systems in the UK, could harness public interest while safeguarding historical sites. Increased public funding for targeted digs, particularly in underexplored regions like Brittany, would address gaps in the current research. Educational initiatives promoting citizen archaeology could also cultivate a broader support base for archaeological projects. Finally, fostering international collaborations would bring fresh perspectives and methods to French archaeology, aligning it with international best practices.

Conclusion

France’s Viking heritage remains an untapped reservoir of archaeological potential. Its historical depth, combined with modern advancements in technology and methodology, presents an opportunity to reexamine the region's Viking activity narrative. The disparity in discoveries between France, the UK, and Scandinavia is not merely a reflection of history but a result of how each country approaches the study of its past. France could uncover new chapters in its Viking story by balancing preservation and exploration, enriching our understanding of this fascinating era.

The conversation with Dr. Cooijmans reminds us of the value of interdisciplinary dialogue in revitalizing interest in archaeology. With a concerted effort, France could bridge the gap and reclaim its place as a center of archaeological discovery. Doing so would not only shed new light on the Vikings but also demonstrate how the past continues to inform and inspire the present.

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Did the Vikings Wear Helmets? Revisited

The Gjerbundu helmet, found in Norway.

When I first tackled the question, “Did the Vikings wear helmets?” in a previous article over ten years ago, I explored whether Vikings wore helmets at all, given the surprising scarcity of Viking helmets in the archaeological record. The quick and easy answer from academia as to why there are so few helmets is and has been that they must have been items reserved for the elite. However, that proposition raises a significant question: if helmets were indeed reserved for elites, why are they so poorly represented when other elite items, like swords and ornate jewelry, are relatively abundant? Even among weapons, we have evidence of over 100 Ulfberht swords, allegedly forged by a single person and renowned for their advanced crucible steel construction. Yet, only two near-complete helmets from the entire Viking Age have survived. This striking disparity continues to challenge our understanding of Viking material culture, prompting debates about the near absence of helmets compared to the wealth of other war-related artifacts.

Two divergent camps have formed over whether the Vikings wore helmets. Some believe the Vikings did wear helmets and that the gap in the archeological record is a fluke. The other camp finds the lack of evidence in the archeological record telling. Perhaps the Vikings—the early Vikings, at least—wore no helmets. This article revisits the topic in light of renewed discussions and explores whether our understanding of Viking helmets has changed in the past decade.

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The Fell Deeds of Fate: Kirkus Calls It a "Richly Developed Epic Viking Adventure"!

I’m beyond excited to share some incredible news: The Fell Deeds of Fate has received a glowing review from Kirkus Reviews! For any author, having your work reviewed by Kirkus is a huge milestone. They’re renowned for their discerning and often critical reviews, so receiving such high praise is a true honor and affirmation of the hard work and dedication that went into creating this book.

Here’s what Kirkus had to say:

“In Adrien’s series-starting historical novel, an aging Viking goes on a journey to capture a great city—and to prove himself worthy by doing so.

Viking leader Hasting has retired to a comfortable life on a small island with his wife, Reifdis, but he’s still immature at heart; specifically, he’s still smarting that he never received the recognition he believed was his due for capturing Paris in the year 845. He’s certain he can be an honorable father to his newborn boy, but Reifdis, due to his drunken ways, has no such faith and divorces him. ‘Hasting, you are, as a result of this, commanded by the queen of this land to leave and never to return,’ says the local seer. Feeling cursed but driven to prove himself, he decides to lead a mission to capture Europe’s grandest yet most impregnable city, Istanbul (which the Vikings call Miklagard). It’s an audacious plan requiring a vast fleet, so he journeys through Europe to call on friends old and new, sailing around northern France, past what is now Denmark and Sweden, and then upriver to his target. Hasting was a real historical figure who effectively disappeared from the record for several years—a gap that Adrien has filled with this fictional but plausible adventure. The novel also includes historical details regarding ships, great halls, and much more. The lengthy historical notes following the narrative show Adrien’s dedication to accuracy. Hasting’s journey is regularly punctuated by battles, captures, and escapes, making for a staccato, episodic plot, and the protagonist reveals his backstory as the narrative progresses, including prior battles and triumphs; his memories of his first love with a woman named Asa; and his childhood in Christian Ireland. As a character, he’s impulsive, arrogant and aggressive, but also clever, loyal and jovial, making him easy to root for—particularly as he slowly learns that honor can’t be won by force. Still, Adrien skillfully crafts a satisfying resolution while teeing up the next series entry.

Richly developed fictional adventures of a real Viking on an epic journey through Europe.”

This review represents everything I set out to achieve with The Fell Deeds of Fate. Kirkus’ recognition of the rich historical details, the authenticity of Hasting’s journey, and the emotional depth of his character is a testament to the care and passion I poured into every page. Acknowledging my dedication to historical accuracy, paired with the adventure and drama of Hasting’s story, makes this review even more meaningful.

Receiving such high praise from Kirkus—a name synonymous with literary excellence—feels like a milestone in my journey as an author. Their review affirms that The Fell Deeds of Fate is a compelling story and a meaningful contribution to the world of historical fiction.

I couldn’t be more excited to share Hasting’s epic adventure with readers, and I’m thrilled that Kirkus sees it as the beginning of a journey worth taking. If you haven’t had a chance to pick up The Fell Deeds of Fate, I hope this inspires you to dive into the world of Vikings, honor, and epic quests. Thank you to all my readers and supporters for being part of this incredible adventure—there’s so much more to come!

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Swords, Sails, and Smallpox: Were the Vikings History's Original Superspreaders?

A 1200-year-old smallpox-infected Viking skeleton found in Öland, Sweden. Credit: The Swedish National Heritage Board

The Viking Age (circa 793–1100 AD) conjures images of fierce warriors, swift longships, and legendary conquests. However, recent research suggests that the Norse may also have played an unexpected and sinister role in history: the spread of smallpox. Far beyond raiding and trading, the Vikings’ extensive travels may have helped disseminate one of the world's deadliest viruses, making them inadvertent superspreaders.

Unveiling the Smallpox Connection

Smallpox, caused by the variola virus, has long been one of humanity's most devastating diseases, claiming millions of lives before its eradication in 1980. While its origins remain murky, a groundbreaking 2020 study published in Sciences shed new light on its ancient history. Researchers analyzed DNA extracted from Viking-age human remains in Scandinavia and found evidence of an extinct strain of the variola virus. This discovery pushed the known existence of smallpox back over 1,400 years, suggesting that the disease ravaged populations much earlier than previously thought.

Crucially, the study highlighted the Vikings’ potential role as vectors. With their extensive maritime networks spanning Europe, the Middle East, and North America, the Vikings could have acted as biological conduits, carrying the virus far and wide.

Superspreaders Across Continents

The Vikings were uniquely positioned to spread diseases like smallpox. Their voyages were not isolated raids but formed an intricate web of interaction. They interacted with diverse populations and ecosystems by establishing trade routes and settlements. As seen in their expeditions to Constantinople, the British Isles, and Greenland, the Vikings were adept at crossing geographical and cultural boundaries.

One compelling hypothesis is that the crowded and unsanitary conditions aboard Viking longships created the perfect breeding ground for viruses like smallpox. Although the Vikings were known to carry cats on their ships to control rat populations—as I explored in my article on Viking maritime practices—this effort to reduce pests may not have been sufficient to prevent the spread of human-borne pathogens. The close quarters and prolonged exposure during voyages could have accelerated disease transmission among the crew, turning a single infected individual into a super-spreader.

Methodology Behind the Discovery

The discovery of smallpox in the Viking Age remains a result of groundbreaking advances in ancient DNA analysis. Researchers extracted DNA from the teeth and bones of human remains buried in sites across Scandinavia. By focusing on well-preserved samples, scientists could identify genetic traces of the variola virus, confirming its presence in Viking populations.

This study's use of high-throughput sequencing technologies is remarkable. These technologies allowed researchers to reconstruct ancient viral genomes with unprecedented precision. This approach confirmed the existence of smallpox during the Viking Age and revealed that the strains present at the time differed from the modern variola virus eradicated in the 20th century. These ancient strains likely caused milder outbreaks but contributed to the disease's long history of human affliction.

The study also employed radiocarbon dating to establish a timeline for the remains, aligning the presence of smallpox with the height of Viking activity. By correlating these findings with historical accounts and archaeological evidence, researchers were able to hypothesize how the Vikings' extensive travel networks facilitated the spread of the virus.

The Middle East Connection: Raiders Turned Traders

The Vikings’ expeditions extended well into the Middle East, where they established trade routes along the rivers of modern-day Russia and engaged with the Byzantine and Abbasid empires. These interactions may have exposed them to pathogens circulating in the densely populated urban centers of the Middle East. Rather than introducing smallpox to the region, it’s more plausible that the Vikings contracted the virus there and brought it back to Europe.

The return journey—often involving prolonged stops at trading hubs like Kyiv or Novgorod—would have allowed the virus to spread. The Vikings’ dual roles as traders and raiders further increased their contact with varied populations, amplifying the disease’s reach.

Evidence from the Grave

Archaeological discoveries support the theory of Viking-era smallpox transmission. The 2020 Science study found smallpox DNA in Viking-age skeletal remains from multiple locations, including Sweden, Norway, and Russia. These findings suggest that the disease was widespread among Norse populations and likely persisted over generations.

Further supporting this are historical accounts of disease outbreaks in medieval Europe. While records from the Viking Age are sparse, later chronicles, such as those from Anglo-Saxon England and Frankish Europe, describe plagues sweeping through regions frequented by the Norse. For example, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions pestilence in the 9th century, when Viking raids and settlements were prevalent. Similarly, Frankish annals recount outbreaks in territories impacted by Norse incursions, suggesting a correlation between Viking activity and the spread of disease. It’s reasonable to infer that their mobility played a role in introducing or exacerbating these outbreaks.

The Superspreader Framework

Modern epidemiology offers a valuable lens for understanding how the Vikings may have functioned as superspreaders. Key characteristics of superspreaders include high mobility, extensive contact networks, and prolonged infectious periods—all traits that align with Viking lifestyles. Their longships carried not just warriors and goods but also invisible pathogens, making every raid or trade mission a potential vector for disease.

Mitigating Factors: Hygiene and Cats

Despite their role in disease transmission, the Vikings were not oblivious to hygiene. Viking culture actively encouraged cleanliness. Historical sources, including Anglo-Saxon, Frankish, and Scandinavian accounts, describe Vikings bathing at least once a week—a practice notably more frequent than that of their southern European counterparts. Archaeological finds of daily life, including intricately designed grooming kits with combs, ear picks, and tweezers, further emphasize personal grooming. Current scholarship often regards the Norse as being as clean, if not cleaner, than other Europeans of the time. This commitment to hygiene may have been partially practical, as it could enhance social interactions and reduce lice and other parasitic infestations common in medieval societies.

As noted earlier, their use of cats on ships to control rats demonstrates a rudimentary understanding of pest management. This practice likely reduced the risk of rat-borne diseases like the bubonic plague, which spread via fleas. However, smallpox—a human-specific virus transmitted through respiratory droplets or direct contact—would not have been mitigated by such measures.

Lessons for Today

The Viking example underscores the profound impact of human mobility on disease dynamics. Much like modern air travel enables the rapid global spread of pathogens, the Vikings’ maritime networks connected distant regions, facilitating the exchange of both goods and germs. Understanding their role as superspreaders provides valuable historical context for pandemics and highlights the interconnectedness of human societies.

Conclusion: The Legacy of Viking Voyages

While the Vikings are celebrated for their adventurous spirit and cultural contributions, their legacy also includes the unintended consequences of their mobility. The discovery of smallpox DNA in Viking-age remains challenges us to reconsider their historical impact, not just as conquerors and traders but also as carriers of one of history’s deadliest diseases.

When I first wrote In The Shadow of the Beast (Saga of Hasting the Avenger, Book 2), I wanted to explore the external adventures of Hasting and his crew and the unintended consequences of their far-reaching voyages. In the book, Hasting’s settlement is devastated by a plague they unwittingly bring back from distant lands, a narrative decision born from my curiosity about the hidden costs of exploration. Reading studies like the one that uncovered smallpox DNA in Viking-age remains validates this storytelling choice in a way I never expected. It’s fascinating—and sobering—how these historical findings align with the fictional world I created. The idea that Vikings could act as unwitting carriers of disease reinforces the complexity of their legacy, and it makes me reflect on how fiction can sometimes intuitively echo historical truths long before they’re fully uncovered. It’s a reminder of why I love weaving history and imagination together—there’s always more beneath the surface.

By exploring how the Vikings may have helped spread smallpox, we gain a deeper appreciation for the complex interplay between human activity and disease. Whether through their longships, trade routes, or interactions with Indigenous peoples, the Norse left an indelible mark on the world that extends beyond swords and sagas to the microscopic agents of history.

Here are citations for the genetic studies on smallpox and Vikings:

Smallpox in Viking DNA
Mühlemann, Barbara, et al. "Ancient Variola Virus Genomes Reveal the Origins and Evolution of Smallpox." Science, vol. 369, no. 6502, 2020, pp. 86–91.
DOI: 10.1126/science.aaw8974

This study identified ancient strains of smallpox in Viking-age human remains, suggesting the disease was widespread in their populations.

Press Coverage on Viking Smallpox

St. John’s College, Cambridge: "Vikings Had Smallpox and May Have Helped Spread the World’s Deadliest Virus." https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/vikings-had-smallpox-and-may-have-helped-spread-worlds-deadliest-virus

ScienceDaily: "Smallpox May Have Plagued Humans Earlier Than Thought." https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/07/200723143733.htm

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Did Vikings Have a Pocahontas? An Obscure Study's Surprising Find

The Vikings were known for their extraordinary voyages, expanding their influence as far as Baghdad in the Middle East and Newfoundland in North America. Their adventurous spirit left behind a trail of raiding, trading, and genetic legacy. Given their prolificness as progenitors across Europe, one question has intrigued me for a number of years: did the Vikings intermix with Native Americans during their explorations of North America?

This question takes us deep into the annals of Viking history, from the Greenland Norse who attempted colonization in North America to a curious genetic study suggesting a possible intermingling of Viking and Native American ancestries. Let’s dive into the evidence and unravel this fascinating possibility.

Viking Voyages to North America: The Greenland Norse

The story of Viking exploration in North America begins with Erik the Red and the Greenland Norse. Exiled from Iceland for manslaughter, Erik settled in Greenland in 985 AD. Over the following centuries, Greenland became a hub for Norse exploration, with tales of fertile lands to the west sparking voyages to what we now know as North America.

Leif Erikson, Erik’s son, is credited with leading the first expedition to these new lands. The sagas describe their discovery of Helluland (likely Baffin Island), Markland (likely Labrador), and Vinland, a region rich in timber and wild grapes. Archaeological evidence, such as the Norse settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, confirms the presence of Viking activity in North America around 1000 AD.

However, the sagas also recount tense relations between the Greenland Norse and the Native Americans, whom they called Skrælings. Initial trade between the two groups led to hostilities, with the Norse abandoning their settlements due to conflict and isolation. The sagas depict the Skrælings in a highly dehumanized light, often as subhuman adversaries. This attitude is exemplified in incidents where the Greenland Norse slaughtered Skrælings with impunity, such as the account of encountering sleeping Skrælings and killing them outright. These descriptions in the sagas highlight the likelihood of a hostile and dismissive relationship, which has long led historians to doubt significant intermixing between the two groups.

The Genetic Evidence: A Surprising Discovery

Fast forward to 2011, when a team led by Agnar Helgason of deCODE Genetics uncovered intriguing genetic evidence that may shed light on this historical mystery. Published in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology, their study identified a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineage, haplogroup C1e, in over 80 living Icelanders. This lineage is distinct from the known European genetic pool and resembles haplogroups in Native American and East Asian populations.

Mitochondrial DNA, passed down through the maternal line, provides a unique lens into ancestry. The presence of C1e in Iceland suggests that a Native American woman might have been brought to Iceland by Norse explorers. Further genealogical analysis traced this lineage back at least 300 years, with evidence pointing to an earlier introduction, possibly during the Viking Age.

What Does Haplogroup C1e Reveal?

The researchers sequenced the complete mtDNA genome of 11 contemporary carriers of haplogroup C1e, revealing a new subclade not belonging to any of the known Native American or Asian subclades (C1b, C1c, C1d, or C1a). This subclade, dubbed C1e, is presently unique to Iceland. While a Native American origin is most likely, an Asian or European origin cannot be entirely ruled out due to the lack of comparative data.

Interestingly, the genealogical database used in the study indicated that the C1e lineage likely entered Iceland’s gene pool centuries before 1700, possibly during the era of Viking exploration. If this is true, it raises the tantalizing possibility that Norse voyages to North America led to the transportation of at least one Native American woman to Iceland. This leads us to an intriguing possibility: could there have been a ‘Viking Pocahontas’?

Historical and Archaeological Context

While the genetic evidence is compelling, it’s essential to consider the historical and archaeological context. Though invaluable historical sources, the sagas provide no direct evidence of intermarriage or partnerships between the Norse and Native Americans. On the contrary, they often depict the Skrælings in a dehumanizing light, emphasizing conflict rather than cooperation.

Archaeological findings at L’Anse aux Meadows and other Norse sites in Greenland show evidence of trade between the Norse and Native populations, such as the presence of butternuts that grow further south in North America. However, there is no clear evidence of long-term interaction or integration of these groups.

Could It Have Happened?

Given the Vikings’ proclivity for forming relationships in foreign lands, it is not implausible that a Greenland Norseman could have taken a Native American woman as a partner during their brief sojourns in North America. Such an event, while rare, could explain the presence of haplogroup C1e in Iceland’s genetic pool. However, the lack of corroborating evidence in the sagas or archaeology suggests that if it did happen, it was an isolated incident rather than a widespread practice. Hence the reference to Pocahontas, which is a historical parallel whereby she returned to England with John Smith.

Implications and Future Research

The discovery of haplogroup C1e opens new avenues for exploring Viking history and their interactions with other cultures. It also underscores the complexity of genetic ancestry and the need for further research. Could additional genetic studies uncover more evidence of intermixing? Might archaeological discoveries provide new insights into Norse-Native relations?

One exciting prospect is the potential for ancient DNA analysis of skeletal remains from Norse sites in Greenland and Iceland. Such research could confirm whether Native American ancestry existed in these populations during the Viking Age.

Conclusion: A Singular Connection?

The evidence for Viking-Native American intermixing remains inconclusive but intriguing. The discovery of haplogroup C1e in Iceland suggests that such a connection is possible, albeit rare. Future research will answer whether this represents a singular event or the tip of a historical iceberg.

As a writer of historical fiction, I find the implications of these genetic findings endlessly intriguing. The potential for stories that weave together the lives of Norse explorers and Native Americans opens the door to a largely unexplored narrative frontier. What might it have been like for a Native American woman to journey to Iceland, leaving her homeland behind to navigate a vastly different culture and climate? How would such an encounter have shaped the lives of the Greenland Norse? These questions ignite the imagination, begging for the careful exploration and humanization that only historical fiction can provide. I would love to see a skilled storyteller bring this possibility to life, crafting a compelling narrative that bridges these worlds and sheds light on what history might not have recorded.

For now, the saga continues, blending history, archaeology, and genetics into a fascinating narrative that reminds us of the Vikings’ enduring legacy—not just as explorers and settlers but also as agents of cultural and genetic exchange.

References and Further Reading:

Ebenesersdóttir, S. S., et al. (2011). "A new subclade of mtDNA haplogroup C1 found in Icelanders: Evidence of pre-Columbian contact?" American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Link to study

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Hook, Loom, and Plough: The Viking Life They Don’t Show in TV Series and Films

While perusing recent archaeological findings, an article titled "Viking Settlers in Orkney 'Preferred Fishing to Fighting'" caught my attention. The piece challenged the stereotypical image of the Vikings as relentless raiders and warriors, presenting instead a portrait of a society rooted in craftsmanship, trade, and sustenance. This unexpected glimpse into the everyday lives of Viking settlers in Orkney prompted me to reflect on the often-overlooked contributions of Viking trades to their society and economy. These silent crafts—from fishing to shipbuilding and textile production—shaped the Viking Age just as much as their more infamous exploits.

The findings in Orkney paint a vivid picture of Viking settlers who adapted to their environment, prioritizing fishing and farming over raiding and conquest. Archaeologists unearthed tools and remnants of a thriving local economy, including evidence of fishing nets, hooks, and bone implements for catching fish in the surrounding waters. Additionally, remains of drying racks and fish processing sites suggest that preserved fish was a significant trade commodity. This focus on subsistence and trade rather than pillaging highlights the pragmatic ingenuity of Viking communities, particularly in regions where resources were abundant and violence unnecessary.

The bold claim that these Vikings "preferred fishing to fighting" is rooted in the absence of substantial evidence of raiding activity in the region during this period. Archaeologists have found little in the way of weapons or defensive structures—artifacts that typically indicate a focus on conflict. Instead, the prevalence of fishing equipment and agricultural tools suggests that their energies were directed toward peaceful pursuits. While it is possible that these Vikings engaged in both raiding and subsistence activities, the archaeological record leans heavily in favor of the latter.

As the Orkney article suggests, fishing was a cornerstone of local trade networks. Coastal and deep-sea fishing provided ample food, while preserved fish could be traded with inland settlements. The Viking settlers’ ability to extract sustenance from the sea demonstrated an advanced understanding of their environment and a deep integration into the natural world. This harmonious relationship with nature was mirrored in other crafts, such as comb-making, textile production, and ship carving, integral to the Orkney settlement’s economy.

Consider the artistry of Viking comb-making. Combs crafted from reindeer antlers were functional tools and intricately designed artifacts that showcased the skill and creativity of their makers. These items, discovered in European archaeological sites, were valuable trade goods. The craftsmanship required to produce them highlights a sophisticated understanding of material properties and design.

Textile production, another vital trade, was primarily driven by women using upright looms. Viking women spun wool and wove cloth, producing garments for practical use and trade. Woolen textiles in Orkney suggest that this labor-intensive craft played a crucial role in the settlers’ lives, serving local needs and broader trade networks. The process required significant skill and patience, from preparing raw wool to creating intricate patterns, underscoring its importance in the community’s economic and cultural fabric.

Ship carving epitomizes the ingenuity and ambition of the Viking Age. The longships that carried Norse explorers across oceans and rivers were feats of engineering and artistry. Carved from oak and adorned with intricate designs, these vessels were practical symbols of power and mobility. In Orkney, evidence of shipbuilding underscores its vital role in facilitating trade, travel, and cultural exchange, connecting the settlement to the broader Viking world.

The cumulative impact of these trades on Viking society cannot be overstated. They were the backbone of a thriving economy that extended from Scandinavia to the far reaches of the known world. Viking artisans’ ability to create functional and beautiful goods ensured their products’ desirability across Europe and beyond. This demand facilitated the establishment of extensive trade networks, connecting Viking settlements to diverse cultures and economies. As goods traveled along these routes, so did ideas, technologies, and cultural practices, enriching both Viking and foreign societies.

Archaeological findings reveal that the peaceful focus of the Orkney settlers offers a compelling counterpoint to the narrative of Vikings as marauding raiders. Instead, it highlights their adaptability and the centrality of trade and craft. This nuanced understanding of Viking society allows us to appreciate the interconnectedness of their world, where raids were but one aspect of a complex and multifaceted culture.

When I research for my books, I often find myself delving into these details—the daily routines, the tools, the processes that formed the fabric of Viking life. Understanding how textiles were spun, fish were preserved, or ships were carved allows me to create a richer, more immersive world for my readers. I try to imagine what it might have felt like to stand in a smoky longhouse, hear the clatter of a loom, or smell the brine from drying fish. These sensory elements anchor the past, making it tangible. But even with all this research, the focus of my novels often pulls me back to the archetypal Viking warrior.

My protagonist, Hasting, is very much the stereotypical fighter. His world is raiding and survival, of strategic cunning and martial prowess. He’s not one to sit and reflect on the intricacies of fishing nets or the beauty of a carved comb. He exploits people like the craftsmen and settlers described in the Orkney article, taking what he needs to sustain his journeys. While this focus aligns with the demands of storytelling, I sometimes wish there were more room to explore the quieter aspects of Viking life. Yet, I recognize that daily life, as crucial as it was, doesn’t always make for exciting narrative arcs. Hasting’s perspective is one of action, not introspection, and through him, I explore a very different side of the Viking Age.

The contrast between the lived realities of Viking settlers and the roving life of a warrior like Hasting underscores the diversity within Viking society. The Orkney findings remind us that history is rarely as one-dimensional as it seems. While my novels may focus on the stormy seas and bloody battles, the silent crafts and the rhythms of daily life truly shaped the Viking world. Though often relegated to the background, these details offer a glimpse into the ordinary lives that sustained the extraordinary feats of the Viking Age.

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Anglo-Saxon Warriors in Byzantium: A Connection Stranger than Fiction?

History is often stranger—and more exciting—than fiction. A recent study exploring connections between Anglo-Saxon Britain and the Byzantine Empire has brought new evidence that early medieval warriors from Britain may have served in Byzantine armies. This discovery reshapes our understanding of early medieval Europe and resonates deeply with themes in my novels, The Fell Deeds of Fate and the upcoming The Empress and Her Wolf. As a writer who loves blending history and imagination, I’m thrilled to see how this research validates my creative liberties in exploring these connections in my stories.

Let’s explore this study's fascinating findings, its historical context, and how it connects to the adventures of Hasting and his crew in my books.

Figure 6. Similarities between princely burials. A selection of objects found at Prittlewell, Taplow, and Sutton Hoo mound 1.Treasures in Anglo-Saxon Graves: Clues to a Byzantine Connection

The study begins with a mystery: How did exotic Byzantine artifacts—such as intricately crafted spoons, basins, and flagons—find their way into the graves of Anglo-Saxon elites? These items, unearthed in famous burial sites like Sutton Hoo and Prittlewell, are not only rare but seem to have been acquired directly in the Eastern Mediterranean. This raises the tantalizing possibility that the individuals buried in these graves might have traveled to Byzantium.

Take, for example, a copper-alloy flagon found in the Prittlewell grave. Decorated with imagery linked to the cult of St. Sergius in Syria, this object wasn’t a mass-produced export. Its presence in an Anglo-Saxon burial suggests it was brought back by someone who had been to the region. Similarly, a large silver spoon inscribed with Greek lettering and a basin thought to have originated in Egypt or Constantinople further support the idea of direct contact between Britain and the Byzantine world.

These artifacts offer more than just aesthetic value; they are tangible evidence of a far-reaching network that connected early medieval Britain to the Mediterranean. But who were the people who traveled such vast distances, and why did they make these journeys?

Anglo-Saxons in the Byzantine Military

The answer may lie in the Byzantine Empire’s military recruitment campaigns during the late 6th and early 7th centuries. At this time, the Byzantines were engaged in a prolonged conflict with the Sasanian Empire, a rivalry that stretched their resources thin. In response, the emperor launched large-scale recruitment efforts across Western Europe, enlisting warriors from Francia, Germania, and potentially even Britain.

These recruits may have served as elite cavalry, fighting on the empire’s northeastern frontier in places like Armenia and Syria. Known for their equestrian skills, these soldiers would have been well-equipped and well-paid, returning home with both wealth and stories of their adventures in one of the most powerful empires of the time. Historical accounts even hint at the presence of “Britons” in the Byzantine military, suggesting that Anglo-Saxon warriors might have joined this cosmopolitan force.

This idea aligns with the material evidence from Anglo-Saxon graves. The exotic goods found in these burials weren’t just rare—they were new when interred. This freshness suggests that the items weren’t passed down through generations or acquired secondhand but were brought back by individuals recently traveling to the Byzantine world.

A Cosmopolitan Equestrian Elite

The study also highlights the broader cultural context of early medieval Britain, portraying its equestrian elite as a remarkably cosmopolitan class. They were not isolated tribal leaders but influential figures with connections that spanned kingdoms and continents. Their graves, adorned with imported goods and equestrian symbols, reflect their status as part of a wider network of power and prestige.

This interconnectedness is evident in the exotic items buried with them and in the shared aesthetic and cultural practices across early medieval Britain. From the architecture of great hall complexes to the design of horse harnesses, these elites displayed a unified cultural idiom that connected them to the broader European and Mediterranean worlds.

Why This Study Matters

This study is more than just an academic finding—it’s a reminder of how interconnected the medieval world was. It challenges the notion of early medieval Britain as an isolated island on the fringes of Europe. Instead, it places it firmly within a network of cultural and military exchanges that spanned continents.

Connecting History to Fiction: Hasting and the Byzantines

As I read this study, I couldn’t help but think of my work. In The Empress and Her Wolf, I explore the theme of Viking warriors serving in the Byzantine Empire, focusing on Hasting and his crew navigating Constantinople's political and military complexities. While the historical Varangian Guard wasn’t formalized until the 10th century, I took creative liberties by imagining Hasting and his men as early mercenaries in the service of Empress Theodora during the 9th century.

At the time, I wondered if this was a bit of a stretch. But this study shows that Anglo-Saxons or other Northern Europeans serving Byzantium centuries earlier isn’t far-fetched. The evidence suggests that such exchanges were part of a long tradition, making my portrayal of Hasting’s adventures plausible and deeply rooted in historical possibility.

For me, this is one of the most exciting aspects of historical fiction: weaving together imagination and scholarship to bring the past to life. Hasting’s journey to Constantinople in The Fell Deeds of Fate and his service to Empress Theodora in The Empress and Her Wolf reflect his quest for redemption and the broader cultural and historical dynamics of the time.

As I continue to write about Hasting’s adventures, this study serves as both validation and inspiration. It shows that the themes I’ve explored in my novels—cultural exchange, personal ambition, and the bonds forged through shared experiences—are not just speculative fiction but reflections of historical realities. The Anglo-Saxon warriors who may have served Byzantium remind us that history is not a static collection of dates and facts but a dynamic, interconnected web of human experiences.

This is an exciting time for fans of history and historical fiction alike. As discoveries come to light, they deepen our understanding of the past and open up new possibilities for storytelling. Whether you’re uncovering artifacts in a burial mound or following Hasting’s adventures in Constantinople, the journey is always one of discovery and wonder.

So here’s to the shared adventure of history and fiction—and to the stories that connect us across time. Check out The Fell Deeds of Fate, available now:

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Unveiling the Hidden Genetic History of the Viking Age: A Revolutionary Study Kicks Off 2025

A cartoon representation of “Viking DNA”

The genomic history of early medieval Europe is as complex and intriguing as the period itself. In a study published on January 1, 2025, in Nature, researchers have shed new light on this era, particularly the Viking Age, by analyzing over 1,500 ancient genomes using an innovative computational tool called Twigstats. This groundbreaking approach has allowed scientists to trace populations' migrations, interactions, and transformations with unprecedented precision. A tapestry of ancestry emerges, woven together by the movements of peoples across Europe, with Scandinavia playing a central role.

Key Findings: Scandinavian Influence Across Europe

The study revealed two significant waves of Scandinavian-related ancestry spreading throughout Europe. The first wave, beginning in the early centuries of the first millennium CE, saw groups from Scandinavia expanding southward into central and eastern Europe. These migrations predate the Viking Age but laid the groundwork for the cultural and genetic diversity that would characterize the period. The second wave came around 800 CE, coinciding with the start of the Viking Age. During this time, Scandinavia experienced an influx of ancestry from groups related to central Europe, marking a dynamic exchange of peoples and ideas. This genetic flow underscores the Vikings’ connections to their neighbors as raiders, settlers, and participants in a broader European network.

Regional variations in ancestry further highlight the complexity of this period. In Poland and Slovakia, early medieval populations displayed strong ties to northern Scandinavian ancestry, suggesting significant movement from Scandinavia into these regions. Meanwhile, in southern Scandinavia, evidence of admixture with central European populations painted a different picture, reflecting local interactions and integration. This regional diversity underscores the rich, multifaceted nature of Viking society, challenging any notion of homogeneity among these northern seafarers.

The study also demonstrated that genetic distinctions between populations were becoming increasingly blurred by the early medieval period. This process of ancestry homogenization, particularly during the transition from the Iron Age, reflects extensive admixture across Europe. These findings provide a more nuanced view of the Viking Age and prompt us to consider the deep roots of this genetic diversity, stretching back centuries before the Vikings set sail.

Twigstats: A New Tool for Genomic Analysis

The researchers' methodological approach was as innovative as the findings themselves. The Twigstats tool uses time-stratified genealogical analysis, focusing on recent genetic events to enhance the resolution of ancestry models. This technique significantly reduces noise in the data, allowing for more accurate reconstructions of genetic history. By incorporating genealogical information into traditional population genetics, Twigstats offers a fresh lens through which to view the past.

Weaknesses in the Methodology

As impressive as this method is, it is not without its limitations. The study relied on a dataset of over 1,500 genomes, but this representation was uneven, with certain regions like central Europe underrepresented. This scarcity of data limits the ability to capture the full scope of genetic interactions and can lead to incomplete or skewed conclusions. Furthermore, the technique depends on high-quality ancient genomes. When samples are degraded or poorly sequenced, they can introduce biases, affecting the reliability of ancestry estimates. The assumptions underlying the genealogy-based models—such as mutation rates and population structures—add another layer of uncertainty. Misjudgments in these areas could distort interpretations of historical events.

Why These Limitations Matter

These limitations matter because they remind us of the provisional nature of such findings. Historical narratives based solely on genetic data risk oversimplifying complex processes. For example, the genetic shifts observed in Scandinavia before the Viking Age suggest pre-existing diversity that complicates the idea of Vikings as a monolithic group. Yet, these genetic patterns remain a single piece of the puzzle without corroboration from archaeology, linguistics, or cultural studies. To build a more complete picture, we must integrate these disciplines, ensuring that genomics enhances, rather than narrows, our understanding of the past.

Implications for Understanding the Viking Age

Despite its limitations, the study offers tantalizing insights into the Viking Age. It reaffirms the Vikings’ remarkable mobility, not only raiding but settling and intermingling with local populations. This blending of cultures and genes was far-reaching, stretching from Britain to the Baltic and beyond. It also reveals the deep connections between Scandinavia and central Europe, which were well-established before the Viking Age but became even more pronounced during it. These findings prompt us to rethink the Viking Age not just as a period of conquest but as one of exchange and integration.

Perhaps most importantly, the study hints at how the Vikings themselves were shaped by the genetic and cultural flows they participated in. The influx of central European ancestry into Scandinavia before the Viking Age suggests that their maritime ventures were not the starting point of their interactions with the broader world but a continuation of long-standing relationships. This perspective enriches our understanding of the Viking Age, situating it within a wider historical context of mobility and transformation.

The Future of Genomic Research in History

As impressive as this study is, it should be viewed as a stepping stone rather than a final word. The field of paleogenomics is still evolving, and its potential for historical research remains vast but untapped. We need more extensive and more geographically representative datasets to build a comprehensive picture of historical migrations. This will help fill gaps and provide a more balanced view of history. Combining genetic data with archaeological, linguistic, and historical evidence can provide a richer and more nuanced understanding of the past. Continued innovation in genome sequencing and computational tools will improve the accuracy and resolution of genetic analyses, opening new doors for historical research.

Conclusion: A Cautious but Promising Outlook

This study offers a fascinating glimpse into the genetic history of early medieval Europe and the Viking Age. Its findings highlight the Vikings’ far-reaching influence and underscore the complexity of their interactions with other populations. However, the limitations of the methodology remind us that these conclusions are not definitive.

In my opinion, more studies like this are essential to deepening our understanding of history. As genomic technologies advance, they will provide sharper tools for reconstructing the past. However, we must be cautious about drawing firm conclusions until we have more data and refined methods. History is a vast, intricate mosaic, and genomics is just one piece of the puzzle—albeit a powerful and promising one.

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Viking Cats: Uncovering the Viking Diaspora Through Feline DNA

The Viking Age (793–1066 CE) was a period marked by extensive maritime exploration, trade, and settlement, defined by the movement of people, goods, and cultural practices across vast territories. While much is known about Viking activities through archaeological evidence and historical records, recent research into the DNA of domestic cats provides a novel perspective. These studies reveal how cats, carried aboard Viking ships as pest controllers, were unwitting agents of Viking expansion. The genetic footprints of these feline companions further illuminate the extent and intricacies of Viking trade and settlement patterns, contributing a unique and (dare I say) cute dimension to the understanding of the Viking diaspora.

The Function and Symbolism of Cats in Viking Society

Cats played a critical role in Viking life, both practically and symbolically. On Viking ships and within settlements, cats were vital for controlling rodents, which threatened food supplies like grain and dried fish. Their utility aboard longships made them essential for seafaring Norse communities. Cats may have been must-haves in regard to preparing a ship for a long sea voyage.

Beyond their practical value, cats also held cultural and mythological significance. In Norse mythology, Freyja, the goddess of fertility, love, and war, was said to drive a chariot pulled by two large cats, perhaps alluding to their critical role in travel. The discovery of cats buried alongside humans in Viking graves further supports the notion that these animals were valued companions and possibly seen as protectors in the afterlife

Genetic Evidence: Tracing the Movement of Cats

Recent genetic research has provided compelling evidence for the movement of cats during the Viking Age. By analyzing mitochondrial DNA from ancient cat remains found at Viking sites, scientists have traced the dispersal of domestic cats alongside Viking expansion. One striking discovery is the presence of cats with Egyptian mitochondrial DNA in Hedeby, a major Viking Age trade hub. These findings indicate that cats of Near Eastern origin traveled through established trade routes, eventually arriving in Scandinavia, and may point to the Vikings having trade ties with Northern Africa.

The genetic markers of these cats reveal a second wave of feline dispersal. The first wave, associated with the spread of agriculture in the Neolithic period, saw cats expand their range alongside early farming communities. The second wave, driven by maritime cultures like the Vikings, facilitated the further spread of cats across Europe and the North Atlantic. This second wave underscores the Vikings’ role in disseminating goods, animals, and cultural practices across vast distances.

Cats as Indicators of the Viking Diaspora

The Viking diaspora refers to the spread of Norse people, culture, and influence beyond Scandinavia. While this phenomenon is traditionally studied through human remains, artifacts, and settlement patterns, the genetic analysis of cats offers a complementary lens. The deliberate transport of cats by Vikings highlights their integration into Norse life and provides tangible evidence of Viking movements and trade networks.

The presence of cats with shared genetic markers in Scandinavia, the British Isles, Iceland, and Greenland demonstrates that these animals were deliberately introduced into Viking colonies. Their survival and proliferation in harsh environments such as Greenland reflect their adaptability and the efforts of settlers to recreate familiar elements of home in new lands.

Insights into Viking Connectivity and Trade Networks

The genetic diversity of cats found at Viking sites underscores the extensive connectivity of the Viking world. Major trade hubs like Hedeby and Birka were central to the exchange of goods, ideas, and biological resources, linking the Norse to distant regions such as the Mediterranean and the Near East. The introduction of Egyptian-lineage cats into Scandinavia exemplifies the long-distance trade networks that the Vikings actively participated in.

These findings also illustrate how Viking trade networks were not solely focused on material goods like silver and textiles but also involved the exchange of living organisms. Cats, as part of these networks, provide a unique perspective on the movement of biological resources and the integration of foreign elements into Norse culture.

Cultural and Ecological Implications

The spread of cats by the Vikings carries both cultural and ecological significance. As introduced species, cats likely influenced local ecosystems, particularly in insular environments like Iceland and Greenland. While their primary role was pest control, their presence may have had unintended consequences for native wildlife populations, mirroring modern discussions about the ecological impacts of species introduction.

Culturally, the integration of cats into Viking settlements reflects their symbolic and emotional importance. Cats’ presence in burial sites suggests that they were considered not only functional animals but also valued companions. This relationship highlights the human dimension of the Viking diaspora, emphasizing the personal and cultural motivations behind Viking expansion.

Methodological Contributions to Viking Studies

The use of animal DNA to reconstruct aspects of human history represents a significant methodological innovation in archaeology and history. The genetic analysis of cats complements traditional approaches to studying the Viking Age, offering new insights into Norse activities and their interconnected world.

By integrating genetic data with archaeological evidence, researchers can reconstruct trade routes, settlement patterns, and cultural practices with greater precision. This multidisciplinary approach enriches the study of the Viking diaspora, highlighting the complexities of Norse life and their interactions with other societies.

Reassessing the Viking Diaspora

The dissemination of domestic cats by Vikings provides a framework for reevaluating the nature of the Viking diaspora. While Vikings are often characterized as raiders and conquerors, the movement of cats emphasizes their roles as traders and participants in extensive cultural and economic networks. This perspective aligns with contemporary scholarship that seeks to portray the Vikings as multifaceted actors engaged in both violent and peaceful exchanges.

The transport of cats also reflects the human need to maintain continuity in new environments. By bringing familiar animals with them, Vikings sought to recreate aspects of their home life, demonstrating a blend of practicality and emotional attachment. These findings add depth to our understanding of Viking expansion as a dynamic process shaped by both external pressures and internal motivations.

Conclusion: Feline DNA as a Historical Tool

The study of Viking cats offers a unique and innovative perspective on the Viking Age. By analyzing the genetic markers of these animals, researchers have uncovered new evidence of Viking trade routes, settlement patterns, and cultural practices. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of the Viking diaspora, emphasizing the interconnectedness of human and animal histories.

Cats, as both functional and symbolic companions, played a vital role in Viking life. Their presence aboard ships and in settlements underscores their importance to Norse society, while their genetic legacy provides tangible evidence of the Vikings’ far-reaching influence. By examining the movement of cats, we gain not only a better understanding of Viking expansion but also a richer appreciation for the complex relationships between humans and animals throughout history.

References

• “Viking Sailors Took Their Cats With Them.” ScienceNordic, 2016. Read more.

• “Cats Sailed With Vikings to Conquer the World, Genetic Study Reveals.” ScienceAlert, 2016. Read more.