Daniel Orr's Blog, page 60

June 6, 1916 – Emperor Yuan Shikai passes away; China soon fragments politically and descends into warlordism

In late 1915, Yuan Shikai made plans toreturn the country to a monarchy.  Hereasoned that the 1911 Revolution that had toppled the Qing dynasty, and theensuing republican government, were divisive, transitory phases, and that onlya monarchy could restore order and unity to the nation.  In November 1915, a “Representative Assembly”was formed to study the matter, which subsequently issued many petitions toYuan to become emperor.  After pretendingto refuse these petitions, on December 12, 1915, Yuan accepted, and namedhimself “Emperor of the Chinese Empire”. Yuan’s reign, as well as the country’s return to a monarchy as the“Empire of China”, was set to commence officially on January 1, 1916, when Yuanwould perform the accession rites.

(Taken from China (1911-1928): Revolution, Fragmentation, and Struggle for Reunification – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Asia – Vol. 5)

Widespread protests broke out acrossmuch of China.  Having experienced great repression under theQing dynasty, the Chinese people vehemently opposed the return to amonarchy.  On December 25, 1915, themilitary governor of Yunnan Province declared hisprovince’s secession from the Beiyang government, and prepared for war.  In rapid order, other provinces also seceded,including Guizhou, Guangxi,Guangdong, Shandong,Hunan, Shanxi,Jiangxi, and Jiangsu. The decisive showdown between Yuan’s army and forces of the rebellingprovinces took place in Sichuan Province, where rebel forces (under Yunnan Province’sNational Protection Army) dealt Yuan’s army a decisive defeat.  During the fighting, Beiyang generals, whoalso opposed Yuan’s imperial ambitions, did not exert great effort to defeatthe rebel forces.  In fact, Beiyang Armycommanders had already stopped supporting Yuan. Furthermore, while the foreign powers recognized the Beiyang regime asthe official government over China,Yuan’s planned monarchy received virtually no international support.  Isolated and forced to postpone his accessionrites, Yuan finally abandoned his imperial designs on March 22, 1916.  His political foes then also pressed him tostep down as president of the republic. Yuan died three months later, in June 1916, with his crumblinggovernment already unable to hold onto much of the country.

Fragmentation,Warlordism, and the Struggle for ReunificationAfter Yuan’s death, Chinafragmented politically, and entered into a long period of warlordism.  Provinces and regions fell under the controlof a military strongman, called a warlord, who ruled virtually independent of,or were only nominally subservient to the Beiyang government.  China’scentral government in Beijingpractically ceased to exist.

The origin of warlordism can be tracedto the Qing’s military reforms, which focused on strengthening provincialarmies (rather than on building up a single centralized national army), and theperiod of Yuan’s consolidation of power. Yuan had given the local civilian governments the power over themilitary, thereby producing civilian-military administrators.

Hundreds of warlords appeared across China.  They had varying strengths and control overlocal, provincial, or regional jurisdictions. Individual warlords, even the most powerful, did not have enough powerto defeat all the other warlords, and achieve their ultimate goal of reunifyingChina.  Consequently, warlords often banded togetherto form regional cliques.  Dozens of suchcliques formed and ruled vast regions.

Even then, all the warlords acknowledgedthat whoever of them controlled Beijinghad the greatest authority.  This was sofor a number of reasons: the Beiyang government continued to be recognized bythe foreign powers as the legitimate authority in China, it could apply for foreignloans, and it collected customs duties.

The Beiyang Army itself also fragmentedinto three competing warlord cliques: Anhuiclique, Zhili clique,and Fengtian clique.  These three cliques became the most powerfulof the warlord groups, and subsequently vied with each other for control of Beijing, either throughpolitical maneuverings or outright warfare. This period of internecine strife in China is known as the Warlord Era,spanning the years 1916-1928.

After Yuan’s death in June 1916, arepublican government was restored in Beijingunder civilian authority led by President Li Yuanhong, and PremierDuan Qirui.  Duan was the leading warlord of the Anhui clique, which hademerged as the most powerful warlord group during this time.  President Li reconvened the National Assemblyand reinstated the 1912 provisional Constitution.  But Li and Duan bickered constantly overpolicy decisions.  In May 1917, Duaninsisted that Chinajoin the Allies and declare war on the Central Powers in the ongoing World WarI.  But Li, wanting China to remain neutral, usedconstitutional measures to remove Duan as premier.

Using his Anhui clique forces, Duan plotted to overthrow Li’sgovernment.  President Li then asked formilitary support from warlord Zhang Xun to protect Beijing. But Zhang was a monarchist, and upon entering the capital on July 1,1916, he overthrew Li and restored Qing Emperor Puyi to the throne. Twelve days later, Duan’s Anhui cliqueforces attacked Beijingand defeated Zhang’s army, and ended the brief restoration of the Qing court.

Major warlord cliques

Duan returned as premier, but now heldthe real power.  He soon ruled as avirtual dictator, and abolished the National Assembly and the 1912 provisionalConstitution.  President Li resigned as aresult of political pressure, and was succeeded by Feng Guozhang, the warlordleader of the yet emerging Zhili clique.

Meanwhile in southern China, a rival government began to form when SunYat-sen returned from exile to Guangzhou in July 1917.  Sun called on legislators from the dissolvedNational Assembly to reconvene in the south. In August 1917, these legislators enacted a law that created the“Constitutional Protection Government” in Guangzhou,with its primary aim of upholding the 1912 provisional Constitution.

The Guangzhougovernment was a rival to the Beiyang government in Beijing, and thus a North-South split wasformed.  Six provinces became allied withthe southern government: Yunnan, Guangxi, Guizhou, Sichuan, Hunan, and Guangdong.  However, this alliance was fragile, andprovincial warlords continued to control their respective jurisdictionsvirtually independent of the Guangzhoucentral government.

June 5, 1967 – Start of the Six-Day War as Israel launches air strikes on Egyptian airbases

On May 28, Israelprepared for war with a call up of reservists. Three days later, foreign embassies in Israel instructed their citizens toleave in anticipation for war.  On June1, Israelfinalized its war plans.  Then in ameeting held on June 4, Israel’scivilian and military leaders set the date for war for the following day, June5.

The Six-Day War was fought in three sectors: Sinai Peninsula and Gaza, West Bank, and the Golan Heights

Israel fought the Six-Day War in three sectors:against Egypt in the GazaStrip and Sinai Peninsula, against Jordanin the West Bank, and against Syriain the Golan Heights.

GazaStrip and Sinai Peninsula Onthe morning of June 5, Israeli planes attacked Egyptian airbases in the Sinai Desert and in Egypt proper (Map 10 shows key battle areas inthe Gaza andSinai sector).  Hundreds of Egyptianplanes, nearly half of Egypt’sAir Force, were destroyed on the ground. Israeli air strikes continued the whole day, knocking out the EgyptianAir Force, which was the strongest among the Arab countries.  In one coup, Israel gained air domination, whichdecided the outcome of the war.

(Taken from Six-Day War – Wars of the 20th Century –Vol. 2)

Simultaneous with theair attacks, Israeli ground forces crossed the border into Egypt.  On the northern sector, one armored divisionof 250 tanks, led by General Israel Tal, was tasked to attack the Gaza Strip andsecure the whole coastal length of the northern Sinai Peninsula.  Four Egyptiandivisions in strong fortifications guarded the Gaza Strip.  In a pincers movement, General Tal’s forcesattacked and captured Khan Yunis.  Thenadvancing west, the Israeli tanks bypassed Rafah (which was taken by Israeliparatroopers) and headed for Sheik Zuweid. Preceded by air and artillery assaults, Israeli ground forces stormedSheik Zuweid, which soon was captured. Israeli units now entered the Sinai Peninsulaand advanced toward Arish, capturing the town the next day.  Israeli armored units then moved along theSinai’s northern coast toward Qantara on the eastern shore of the Suez Canal.  In theGaza Strip, other Israeli armored units attacked Gaza City,which also was captured.  Thereafter, Israel gained control of the whole Gaza Stripand the northern Sinai Peninsula.

To the south ofGeneral Tal, two Israeli armored divisions were tasked to attack the strongEgyptian defenses in central Sinai.  Oneof these armored divisions consisted of one hundred tanks and two infantrybrigades, and was led by General Avraham Yoffre. General Yoffre’s forces advanced through desert dunes to avoid Egyptianpositions, and reached the Abu-Ageila – Arish road junction where they met anddefeated an Egyptian armored unit.  TheIsraelis secured the road junction, thereby blocking Egypt from sending reinforcementsto central Sinai.

To the south ofGeneral Yoffre, another armored division under General Ariel Sharon advanced toward the Egyptian central Sinaifortifications in Umm-Katef and Abu-Ageila. Egyptian defenses consisted of 16,000 troops and over one hundred tanks.  After conducting probing attacks, GeneralSharon’s forces attacked Umm-Katef from the east.  General Yoffre’s armored units also attackedfrom the north.  Israeli commandos wereairdropped behind enemy lines to raid the Egyptian batteries that were firingat the advancing Israeli forces.  On thenight of June 5, newly emplaced Israeli artillery units opened a barrage of theEgyptian defenses.  On June 6, Umm-Katefand Abu-Ageila fell; thereafter, the Egyptian defenses in central Sinaicollapsed.

The Israeli strategyalso called for a diversionary force led by Colonel Albert Mandler toadvance to southern Sinai in order to draw off the Egyptian Army from theIsraeli main invasion points.  ColonelMandler’s forces met fierce resistance before capturing Kuntilla.  The diversionary force then proceeded northand met up with General Sharon’s forces.

With the fall of the central Sinai sector, the EgyptianArmy High Command ordered a general retreat of all remaining Egyptian forces inthe Sinai Peninsula.  In the hasty, confused retreat that followed,Israeli planes wreaked havoc on the Egyptian Army.  Israeli armored units raced westward and cutoff the Mitla and Gidi Passes, where theydestroyed Egyptian Army units that were attempting to escape.  Some Egyptian units eluded the blockade andmade it safely to the western shore of the Suez Canal and across into Egyptproper.

Major battle areas in the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza sectors of the Six-Day War

On June 7, Israeliships launched an artillery bombardment of Sharm el-Sheik, the Sinai’ssouthernmost port.  Then, Israelicommandos were airdropped, capturing the city by early afternoon.  With the fall of Sharm el-Sheik, the Straitsof Tiran were reopened to Israeli shipping. On June 8, Israeli forces gained control of the whole Sinai Peninsula asIsrael and Egypt agreed to a ceasefire.

West Bank On June 5, a few hours after fighting had begun in theSinai, skirmishes broke out in Jerusalem betweenJordanian and Israeli forces (Map 11 shows some key battle sites in the West Bank). Jordanian artillery then opened fire, targeting Israeli-controlled WestJerusalem, and Netanya and Tel-Aviv in Israel.  The Israeli government warned Jordan’sKing Hussein to keepout of the war, which the latter ignored. Jordan’s involvementin the war stemmed from King Hussein’s concern of an Israeli invasion ofJordan-controlled West Bank.  On May 30, less than a week before the warbegan, Jordan and Egyptsigned a mutual defense pact, where the two Arab countries pledged to come toeach other’s aid if attacked.  King Husseinalso was lured into starting hostilities when, in the early hours of the war, Egyptprovided him with false information that the Egyptian Armed Forces werewinning.

Later in the morningof June 5, Jordanian planes attacked Netanya, Kfar Sirkin, and Kfar Saba in Israel.  Israelresponded by sending two waves of planes that attacked Jordan’s airbases just as theJordanian planes had just landed and were refueling.  Israeli planes destroyed Jordan’s Air Force of 28 planes, which againproved decisive as Israelgained air superiority in this sector of the war.

During the skirmishesearlier in the day, Jordanian Army units had entered Israel-control West Jerusalem. The Israeli forces now threw back the attack and then advanced intoJordan-controlled East Jerusalem.  During the next three days, many battles tookplace across Jerusalemand the surrounding areas, with the Israelis eventually gaining control of thewhole city by June 7.  Israeli forcespursued the retreating Jordanian Army units into Har Adar, Beit Horon, andRamallah.  Another Israeli offensive fromthe Jezreel Valley captured Jenin.  The Jordanian Army was a potent, disciplinedfighting force, and possessed weapons comparable in strength to those of theIsraelis.  However, the Israeli forces’numerical superiority, better tactics, and above all, air mastery, proveddecisive in the outcome.

On June 7, KingHussein ordered all Jordanian forces to withdraw from the West Bank, fearing anIsraeli attack on Jordanitself.  The Jordanian Army took positionson the western shore of the Jordan River,securing the approaches.  Israel soon gained control of the West Bank,including all of Jerusalem.  On June 9, Jordanand Israelagreed to a ceasefire.  As a result ofthe Israeli victory, some 300,000 Palestinian civilians fled from the West Bankinto Jordan,which would cause, in succeeding years, political and security problems for theJordanian government.

Battle sites in the West Bank sector of the Six-Day War

Golan Heights On June 5, Syriaopened the northern sector of the war with its artillery batteries in the Golan Heights shelling Israeli settlements in the plainsbelow.  Syrian planes also attacked areasof Upper Galilee (Map 12 shows some key battle areas in the Golan Heights).  On the night ofJune 5, Israeli planes attacked Syrian airbases and destroyed nearly half ofall Syrian planes on the ground.  TheSyrian Air Force then moved its remaining planes farther away from the battlezones and ceased to be a factor for the rest of the war.  As in the other theaters of the war, Israelgained air domination on the Syrian front, which again proved decisive.

During the earlystages of the war, Israel’sforces were concentrated in the Egyptian and Jordanian sectors; therefore, Israel’sstrategy in the north was merely to hold on and defend territory withundermanned forces.  Syrian offensives,however, generally were limited in strength and effectiveness.  On June 6, a Syrian infantry and armoredattack on Tel Dan, Dan, and She’ar Yashov was turned back by Israel air strikes and fierce localresistance.  A large Syrian offensiveinto Galilee was aborted because of logisticaland communications problems.

June 4, 1944 – World War II: Allied forces enter Rome

On May 23, 1944, the Alliesbroke through the last of the three Winter Line positions, the Senger Line[1].  Meanwhile, elements of U.S. VI Corpsadvancing on Romewere stalled by strong German resistance at the Caesar C Line, but exploited agap and broke through on June 2, 1944. American units entered Romeunopposed on June 4, 1944, which had been vacated by the Germans on orders byHitler, who balked at another Stalingrad-type attrition battle in the Italiancapital.  Rome, which had been declared an “open city”and thus undefended, also had been subject to constant Allied airbombardment.  The glory attached tocapturing Rome, which had predominated throughout the Allied campaign, wasupstaged just two days later, June 6, 1944, when the Allies launched the muchmore strategically important Operation Overlord, beginning with the amphibiouslandings on Normandy aimed at the re-conquest of France and occupied WesternEurope, and ultimately the defeat of Germany.

(Taken from Italian Campaign – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Europe – Vol. 6)

On their withdrawal to northernItaly, German forces – the14th Army in the east and 10th Army in the west – facedthe real danger of being cut off by the rapid pursuit of the Allies: the U.S. 5th Army through the central Apennines and western coast, and British 8thArmy along the Adriatic coast.  By mid-June1944, the Germans had retreated behind the first delaying positions, theTrasimene Line,which the Allies breached in July 1944. The Germans then withdraw to the Arno Line, which also fell to an Alliedassault.  But the two temporary linesstalled the Allies long enough to allow the Germans to complete their maindefensive line in northern Italy,the Gothic Line (later renamed the Green Line) where the Germansretreated.  The Germans experienceddifficulties in building the Gothic Line because of extensive Italian partisanactivity, including guerilla attacks, sabotage of the Line’s construction, andassassination of German officers.

In late August 1944, theAllies launched Operation Olive, a pincers attack on the Gothic Line with U.S. 5th through the central Apennines and British 8th Armies on theAdriatic coast.  A combined 1.2 milliontroops (Allies and Axis) became engaged in heavy fighting.  In late September 1944, the Allies breached asection of the Line’s forward defenses, but the Germans retreated in goodorder.  Casualties on both sides totaledsome 100,000 troops.  Despite thebreakthrough, the Allies failed to inflict a decisive defeat on the Germans,who continued to hold much of 10-mile (16 kilometers) deep Line.

By this time, the Italiantheater of operations had taken a back seat, as the Allies concentrated theirresources on the recapture of France.  Many divisions from U.S. 5th Army and British 8thArmy were pulled out of Italyand transferred to the Western Front. Other British units also were moved to Greeceand Yugoslavia.  By October 1944, the Allied advance slowedbecause of autumn rains that turned the ground into impassable quagmires forarmored and mechanized movement, and also because of exhaustion of thesoldiers, and reduced personnel strength from the withdrawal of troops.  Even so, British Prime Minister Churchillcontinued to call for offensive actions in Italy and to breach the Gothic Lineas quickly as possible.  Churchill’s ideawas that British and American forces would continue to advance east from Italyand into Austria, Hungary, and Central Europe in order to meet up and forestallthe continued advance of the Soviet Red Army, which was ready to break throughinto Romania and thrust into the Balkans and Eastern Europe.  Churchill’s motives were political, that ofbringing as much of post-war Europe away fromthe Soviet communist sphere.  However,this strategy was opposed by the Americans, who wanted a quick end to the warthrough the re-conquest of France and the Western Front, and then into Germany.

The Allies adopted the“offensive defense” strategy, which allowed them to undertake a series oflimited attacks in October-November 1944 – which included the British 8thArmy’s “Battle of the Rivers” – which pushedback the German defensive lines toward Bologna.  In late December 1944, the British advancestopped at the Senio River because of strongGerman positions in the 20-foot raised embankment at the other side.  In mid-October 1944, U.S. 5th and British 8thArmies made a determined effort to capture Bologna, which failed because of fierce enemyresistance.

Meanwhile in November 1944,U.S. 5th Army was strengthened by the arrival of the Brazilian 1stInfantry Division, U.S. 92nd Infantry Division, and U.S. 10thMountain Division.  In November-December1944, a U.S. 5thArmy attack failed to capture Bologna.  But with improved weather conditions inmid-February 1945, U.S. 5th Army resumed its offensive, pushing backthe Germans, and which by early March 1945, allowed the Allies to straightentheir forward line.

On April 9, 1945, the Allieslaunched their final offensive on the Gothic Line, starting with diversionary thrusts at the flanks aimedat drawing away German reserves from the main attacks.  The Allies opened a massive artillery and airbombardment, in the American sector alone using 2,000 heavy bombers and 2,000artillery pieces.  By this time, Germandefenses were seriously weak, massively outgunned, and lacked air cover, whichreflected Germany’s over-allcrumbling military situation, as the Soviet Red Army also was set to launch itsfinal attack on Berlin.

On April 18, 1945, theBritish broke through at the Argenta Gap in the midst of desperate Germanresistance, and on April 21, Bologna fell to apincers movement by U.S.5th and British 8th Armies.  By then, German resistance was breaking down,and the Allies advanced into the Po Valley, with elements of U.S. 5thArmy in the west crossing the Po River on April 22 and British units in theeastern sector in the following days.  Inthe American sector, units advanced toward the Austrian border and northwestregions, meeting only light resistance in many areas, including Verona, Milan, and Turin.  In the east, the British 8th Armybroke through the Venetian Line, taking Venice, Trieste, and Padua.

Meanwhile, with hisGerman-backed regime verging on collapse, Mussolini attempted to flee to Switzerland,but was captured by Italian communist partisans, who summarily executed him,together with members of his party on April 28, 1945.  The next day, the bodies were brought to Milan and hung upside downin a public spectacle in the town square while being subject to ridicule,beatings, and other indignities by a large crowd.

By late April 1945, Germanforces in Italy,comprising Army Group G, were all but defeated. As early as March 1945, German officials had been secretly negotiatingsurrender terms with the Western Allies, which the Soviet Union denounced.  On April29, 1945, General Heinrich von Vietinghoff, head of German Army Group G, signeda surrender agreement with the Allies, to take effect on May 2.  General Kesselring, now commander-in-chief ofArmy Group West, rejected the surrender, and dismissed General vonVietinghoff.  But after a brief period ofconfusion following Hitler’s suicide on April 30, 1945, Kesselring agreed tothe capitulation in Italy,and also surrendered his own command to the Allies.  The battle for Italy was over.

[1] Formerly the Hitler Line, but renamed Senger Line on Hitler’sorders to downplay its importance if it was breached.

June 3, 1940 – The Allies evacuate Dunkirk, and German forces take control of northern France

On May 26, 1940, the British High Command implementedOperation Dynamo, the Allied naval evacuation from Dunkirk,with the first troops, numbering 28,000 being evacuated by ships to southern Englandon that day.  Then the Allies received astunning blow when on May 27, Belgian King Leopold III asked the Germans for anarmistice, and the next day, May 28, 1940, the monarch formally surrendered theBelgian Army.  The sudden Belgiancapitulation exposed the Dunkirkperimeter’s western flank, seriously jeopardizing the evacuation.  However, fierce resistance by 40,000 Frenchtroops, the trapped remnants of the French 1st Army at Lilleagainst four German infantry and three armored divisions (comprising 110,000troops, 800 tanks) stalled the German advance that allowed 70,000 more Alliedtroops to escape to Dunkirk.  As a result of the 4-day siege at Lille, the French 1st Armywas destroyed.

(Taken from Battle of France – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Europe – Vol. 6)

The Dunkirk evacuation, lasting from May 26 to June 4, 1940,was successfully carried out: under fierce, constant German air, artillery, andtank fire, and a gradually shrinking perimeter as the Germans broke through thedefensive lines, hundreds of small vessels, including privately owned fishingboats and pleasure craft from southern England, were used to assist ships ofthe British Royal Navy to evacuate Allied troops from the harbor and beaches ofDunkirk.  Of the 222 British Royal Navyvessels and 665 other requisitioned boats that took part, 6 British and 3French destroyers, 24 smaller Royal Navy vessels, and 226 other ships werelost.  Also, 19 other British destroyerswere damaged, as were over 200 other British and Allied vessels.  On June 4, 1940, German forces broke throughthe last defense line and entered Dunkirk,capturing some 40,000 French troops who had failed to make the evacuation.  In total, 331,000 Allied troops wereevacuated, of whom 192,000 were British and 139,000 were French.  But the British Army left behind all itsheavy weaponry and equipment: 700 tanks, 45,000 trucks, 20,000 motorcycles,2,500 artillery pieces, and 11,000 machine guns.

June 2, 1964 – The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) is founded

On June 2, 1964, the Palestinian Liberation Organization, orPLO, was founded in the first Arab League Summit held in Cairo, Egypt.The PLO’s stated purpose was the “liberation of Palestine” through armed struggle, targetingmuch of its violence at Israeli civilians. The 1964 Arab League Summit had asone of its major objectives countering the “aggressive policies” of Israel, although at this time, some memberstates, notably Egypt,did not want to take armed recourse. Instead, the summit agreed to use anon-military tactic – that of diverting the Jordan River to deprive Israelof water.

With regards to Palestine,the summit agreed to assist in establishing a Palestinian entity, which led tothe formation of the Palestinian Liberation Organization. In the aftermath ofthe 1948 Arab-Israeli War where Israelbecame an independent state, some 750,000 Palestinians fled from Palestine and becamedisplaced in surrounding countries. The summit was aimed at uniting the variousPalestinian organizations to form a central organization in a united frontagainst Israel.By 1969, Yasser Arafat, leader of a militant group called Fatah, became head ofthe PLO.

June 1, 1941 – World War II: German forces capture Crete in southern Greece

In early June 1941, the Axisconquest of all Greek territories was completed by the German capture of Crete after a two-week offensive.  This campaign, known as the Battle of Crete, involved German paratroopers and glider units seizingstrategic points in the northern coast preparatory to the arrival of otherground forces.  The initial Germanlandings brought near disaster, as the paratroopers suffered heavy casualtiesand the Luftwaffe lost a significant number of planes.  But with the capture of Maleme airfieldfollowing an Allied communications error, the Germans established a toehold in Crete for more troops to arrive.  On June 1, 1941, the Germans seized the wholeisland; some 18,000 Allied soldiers who had failed to be evacuated werecaptured.

(Taken from Invasion of Greece – Wars of the 20th Century – World War II in Europe – Vol. 6)

Aftermath Greece was divided into Axis occupation zones,with Germany taking the moststrategically important regions, including Athens,and the Italians occupying much of the rest of Greece.  Bulgaria,which did not participate in the invasion, was allowed to occupy Western Thraceand Eastern Macedonia.  In Athens, theGermans set up a collaborationist government under the renamed “Hellenic State”,which held no real power but served merely as a conduit for German impositions.

Axis occupation of Greece

The Axis occupation broughtabout dire consequences: tens of thousands were killed in executions and as aresult of famine, infrastructures were left to ruin, and industries andeconomic activity stagnated.  By late1941, anti-Axis militias had begun to organize, leading to the rise of theGreek Resistance, which would expand in 1942 and 1943, and achieve considerablesuccess, particularly in the mountainous interior and by tying down largenumbers of Axis forces.

To this day, historians continue todeliberate whether Hitler’s decision to intervene in Greeceand Yugoslavia indirectlycaused the failure of Operation Barbarossa, Germany’sinvasion of the Soviet Union.  Proponents state that the Balkan interventionforced Germany to delayOperation Barbarossa, moving back the earlier launch date of May 14, 1941 toJune 22, 1941, or at the very least, that Germanyhad to await the outcome of its Balkan campaign before it could invade the Soviet Union. Opponents argue that other factors, not the Balkan campaign, forced Germany to delay Operation Barbarossa, includingflooded rivers in Eastern Europe resultingfrom an unusually wet winter, incomplete logistical preparations, and the needto secure its Balkan flank from a possible British attack.  In this way, they conclude that Germany’sinvasion on June 22, 1941 was doomed to failure from the start.

May 31, 1916 – World War I: British and German navies clash at the Battle of Jutland in World War I

On May 31, 1916, the British Grand Fleet and the German HighSeas Fleet met at the Battle of Jutland, located off Denmark’sNorth Sea coast. Neither side achieved adecisive victory.

During World War I, Britain imposed a naval blockade of Germany.The German Navy, being much smaller than the British Royal Navy, could notengage the latter in full open combat. The German plan at Jutlandwas to engage and destroy a portion of the British fleet.

The Battle of Jutland involved some 250 ships and 100,000men, and was the only major naval surface encounter in World War I.  Both sides claimed victory. The British lostmore ships and men, and the navy was criticized by the British press forfailing to achieve a decisive outcome. However, the battle was a strategicBritish victory, as the Royal Navy had forced the German surface fleet toretire to Germany,where it would remain as a “fleet in being” for the rest of the war.   Britaincontrolled the North Sea and Germanywas denied access to the Atlantic and Britishshipping lanes. By 1917, the German Navy turned to its U-boats to launchunrestricted submarine warfare to destroy Allied and neutral shipping.

May 30, 1913 – First Balkan War: Albania gains independence by the Treaty of London

On May 30, 1913, Albaniagained its independence from the Ottoman Empirewith the signing of the Treaty of London that ended the First Balkan War(October 1912-May 1913). Albania’ssovereignty was furthered in August 1913 in the Treaty of Bucharest thatdelineated the boundaries of the new state, but left 30-40% of ethnic Albaniansoutside its borders.

Background TheFirst Balkan War was fought between the Ottoman Empire and an alliance of theBalkan League, a military alliance among Serbia,Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece, for control of Rumelia, abroad swathe of Ottoman territory in the Balkans.  The Treaty of London, signed on May 30, 1913,officially ended the war.  The Europeanpowers (Britain, France, Germany,Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Russia) applied strong pressure,forcing the warring sides to accept the terms of the agreement.  The treaty’s most important provision forcedthe Ottoman Empire to cede to the BalkanLeague all European territory west of the Enos-Midia Line.

(Taken from First Balkan War – Wars of the 20th Century –Vol. 3)

The Ottoman government complied and withdrew its forces fromthe Balkans, thus ending nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule in practicallyall of Europe. After further deliberations and under strong insistence of Austria-Hungary and Italy,on July 29, 1913, the European powers agreed to recognize the independence of Albania, where local Albanian nationalists hadpreviously (on November 28, 1912) declared the province’s secession from the Ottoman Empire.  Asa result, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegrowithdrew their forces from occupied areas in Albania, again after beingstrong-armed diplomatically by the European powers.

The partitioning of other Balkan territories was left to thediscretion of the Balkan League. Nevertheless, the unexpected birth of the Albanian state disrupted theSerbian-Bulgarian pre-war secret partition agreement of the Balkan region.  In particular, Bulgaria was disappointed atits less than expected territorial gains in the war, more so in relation toGreece whose forces had performed exceedingly (and surprisingly) well, and hadgained a larger share of the conquered territories in southern Macedonia thatotherwise would have been won by Bulgaria. For this reason, Bulgariaput pressure on Serbia and Greeceto turn over some of the conquered territories, which the latter two refused.

The stage thus was set for the resumption of hostilities,the Second Balkan War.

May 29, 1982 –Falklands War: British forces capture Goose Green

The battle for Goose Green began on the night of May 27, 1982 with theBritish soldiers being pinned down by heavy fire.  The following morning, the Britishsuccessfully outflanked the ridge and advanced toward Goose Green.  British planes struck at Argentineanpositions, which began to break down. The British ground force then demanded the Argentineans tosurrender.  Believing he was facing alarge force, the Argentinean commander surrendered, and Goose Greece came under Britishcontrol.  Goose Green became a greatmorale boost to British forces in the Falklandsas well as to the British general public in the homeland.

(Taken from Falklands War – Wars of the 20th Century –Vol. 3)

Background In early 1982, Argentina’s ruling military junta,led by General Leopoldo Galtieri, was facing a crisis ofconfidence.  Government corruption, humanrights violations, and an economic recession had turned initial public supportfor the country’s military regime into widespread opposition.  The pro-U.S. junta had come to power througha coup in 1976, and had crushed a leftist insurgency in the “Dirty War” byusing conventional warfare, as well as “dirty” methods, including summaryexecutions and forced disappearances.  Asreports of military atrocities became known, the international community exertedpressure on General Galtieri to implement reforms.

In its desire to regain the Argentinean people’smoral support and to continue in power, the military government conceived of aplan to invade the Falkland Islands, a British territorylocated about 700 kilometers east of the Argentine mainland.  Argentinahad a long-standing historical claim to the Falklands,which generated nationalistic sentiment among Argentineans.  The Argentine government was determined toexploit that sentiment.  Furthermore,after weighing its chances for success, the junta concluded that the Britishgovernment would not likely take action to protect the Falklands, as theislands were small, barren, and too distant, being located three-quarters downthe globe from Britain.

The Argentineans’ reasoning was not withoutmerit.  Britainunder current Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was experiencing an economic recession, and in1981, had made military cutbacks that would have seen the withdrawal from theFalklands of the HMS Endurance, an ice patrol vessel and the British Navy’sonly permanent ship in the southern Atlantic Ocean.  Furthermore, Britainhad not resisted when in 1976, Argentinean forces occupied the uninhabitedSouthern Thule, a group of smallislands that forms a part of the British-owned South Sandwich Archipelago, located 1,500 kilometers east of the Falkland Islands.

In 1982, Argentina and Britain went to war for possession of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

In the sixteenth century, the Falkland Islands first came to European attention when they were signed byPortuguese ships.  For three and a halfcenturies thereafter, the islands became settled and controlled at varioustimes by France, Spain, Britain,the United States, and Argentina.  In 1833, Britaingained uninterrupted control of the islands, establishing a permanent presencethere with settlers coming mainly from Walesand Scotland.

In 1816, Argentinagained its independence and, advancing its claim to being the successor stateof the former Spanish Argentinean colony that had included “Islas Malvinas” (Argentina’s name for the Falkland Islands), theArgentinean government declared that the islands were part of Argentina’s territory.  Argentinaalso challenged Britain’saccount of the events of 1833, stating that the British Navy gained control ofthe islands by expelling the Argentinean civilian authority and residentsalready present in the Falklands.  Over time, Argentineans perceived the Britishcontrol of the Falklands as a misplacedvestige of the colonial past, producing successive generations of Argentineansinstilled with anti-imperialist sentiments. For much of the twentieth century, however, Britainand Argentina maintained anormal, even a healthy, relationship, although the Falklandsissue remained a thorn on both sides.

After World War II, Britain pursued a policy of decolonization thatsaw it end colonial rule in its vast territories in Asia and Africa,and the emergence of many new countries in their places.  With regards to the Falklands, under UnitedNations (UN) encouragement, Britainand Argentinamet a number of times to decide the future of the islands.  Nothing substantial emerged on the issue ofsovereignty, but the two sides agreed on a number of commercial ventures,including establishing air and sea links between the islands and theArgentinean mainland, and for Argentinean power firms to supply energy to theislands.  Subsequently, Falklanders(Falkland residents) made it known to Britain that they wished to remainunder British rule.  As a result, Britain reversed its policy of decolonization inthe Falklands and promised to respect thewishes of the Falklanders.

War By March 1982, the Argentinean military hadcompleted its invasion plan. Occasionally, Argentinean officials made hinted references to theinvasion, which apparently were overlooked by the British government.

The invasion plan called for Argentine forces firstseizing South Georgia Island, located northwest of the South Sandwich Islands.  On March19, 1982, Argentinean contract workers in South Georgia Islandraised the Argentine flag.  On April 3,fighting broke out between the Argentinean invasion force and the small Britishgarrison defending the island.  TheBritish inflicted some material damage to the invaders, but were overwhelmedand forced to surrender.  South Georgia Island then came under Argentineancontrol.

The invasion of the Falklands began on April 2,1982, with 100 Argentinean commandos landing at Port Stanley, the capital, ahead of the main force of 2,000 soldierswho later were landed amphibiously. After some skirmishes, the island’s British garrison of 60 soldierssurrendered, and the Falklands came underArgentine control.

May 28, 1991 – Ethiopian Civil War: Rebel forces capture Addis Ababa, ending the Derg regime

On May 21, 1991, Mengistufled into exile in Zimbabwe,where he was granted political asylum, leaving his crumbling regime to hisVice-President, Tesfaye Kidan, who offered the rebels more concessions,including forming a power-sharing government. But by May 26, the last remaining government units defending theapproaches to Addis Ababahad collapsed, and the city was poised to be seized by the rebels.  Meanwhile in London, under the auspices ofthe United States which was assisting in Ethiopia’s transition to democracy,negotiations between the Ethiopian government and the EPLF and EPRDF to try andwork out a post-war transitional government broke down when the governmentrepresentative walked out of the proceedings in protest of the U.S. mediator’sproposal that EPRDF forces enter the capital to prevent widespread anarchy andlawlessness that were threatening to erupt as a result of the government’simpending collapse.  On May 27, 1991,EPRDF forces entered the capital; except for some minor fighting that continueduntil June 1991, the war essentially was over. During the 17-year war, an estimated 400,000 to 580,000 people werekilled in the fighting and war-related violence while another one millionpeople perished during the 1980s famines.

(Taken from Ethiopian Civil War – Wars of the 20th Century – Volume 4)

Background Byearly 1974 but unbeknownst at that time, the 44-year reign of Ethiopia’s aging emperor, HaileSelassie, was verging on collapse under the burgeoning weight of various internalhostile elements.  Haile Selassie hadascended to the throne in April 1930, bearing the official title, “His Imperial Majesty the King of Kings ofEthiopia, Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God”, to reignover the Ethiopian Empire that had been in existence for 800 years.  Except for a brief period of occupation bythe Italian Army from 1936 to 1941, Ethiopia had escaped falling underthe control of European powers that had carved up the African continent into colonialterritories during the 19th century. (The latter event, known as the Scramble for Africa, saw only twoAfrican states, Ethiopia andLiberia,that did not come under European domination.)

Under Haile Selassie’srule, Ethiopiabecame a founding member state of the United Nations in 1945 and theOrganization of African Unity in 1963. The Ethiopian emperor had placed great emphasis on his personal, as wellas Ethiopia’s, role inpost-World War II international affairs, and as such, had played a major rolein peacemaking and contributed to mediation efforts in various Africanconflicts (e.g. the Congo, Biafra, Algeria,and Morocco).  By the 1970s (at which time, he was at the advancedage of 80), Haile Selassie was widely regarded in the international communityand respected as an elder statesman and a great African father figure.

Ethiopia and nearby countries in Africa

At the same time,however, Haile Selassie’s Ethiopiawas mired in numerous internal problems, foremost of which was great socialunrest generated by the deeply entrenched conservative monarchy, aristocraticnobility, and wealthy landowning and business classes that opposed reformswhich were being called for by the various emerging militant sectors ofsociety.  In some regions, somelandowners owned large tracts of agricultural land, relegating most of therural population to tenant farmers and farm laborers in a semi-feudal,patronage system.  Haile Selassie made someattempts to implement land reform and other measures of agrarian equality, butthese were opposed by the wealthy landowners. Social tensions also existed among Ethiopia’s many ethnic groups,which were further compounded because of the monarch’s de facto absolute rule and sometimes inequitable policies thatfavored his own Amharic ethnic class to the detriment of other regional ethnicgroups.

Ethnic tensions sometimesled to armed rebellion, such as those that occurred in northern Wollo in 1930,Tigray in 1941, and Gojjam in 1968. Haile Selassie placed much emphasis on promoting education, but hisgovernment made only modest gains to transform the elitist educationalstructure into a universal public school system, e.g. by the early 1970s, some90% of Ethiopians were still illiterate. Ironically, however, Ethiopia’seducational system became the breeding ground for radical ideas, as universitystudents, particularly those studying in Europe,became exposed to Marxism-Leninism.  Inthe 1960s and 1970s, many ethnicity-motivated, separatist, or socialistmovements emerged in Ethiopia.  Among the more important Marxist groups werethe All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement and EthiopianPeople’s Revolutionary Party, while major regionalmovements included the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) and EritreanLiberation Front (ELF), both founded in 1960, and the Oromo Liberation Front,organized in 1973.

For Haile Selassie’sregime, the most serious among the regional groups was the ELP-led Eritreaninsurgency.  Eritreahistorically had a long political development separate from Ethiopia, but the latter regarded Eritreaas an integral part of the Ethiopian Empire. In September 1952, the United Nations federated Eritrea (then under temporary Britishadministration) with Ethiopia(the union known as the Ethiopian-Eritrean Federation), which granted Eritreabroad administrative, legislative, judiciary, and fiscal autonomy but under therule of the Ethiopian monarch.  However,Eritreans desired full sovereignty and in September 1961, the ELF launched aneventually lengthy 30-year armed struggle for independence.

By the 1960s, Ethiopia’s feudalistic system, governmentcorruption, and failure to implement land reform and other social programs wereinciting student and activist groups to launch protest demonstrations and massassemblies in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia’s capital.  Ultimately, however, it was the Ethiopianmilitary that would set in motion the events that would overturn Ethiopia’spolitical system.  In December 1960,reformist elements of the military, led by the commander of the Imperial Guard(the emperor’s personal security unit), launched a coup d’état to overthrow Haile Selassie, who was away ona state visit to Brazil.  Most of the Ethiopian Armed Forces, however,remained loyal to the government, and the coup failed.  In the aftermath, Haile Selassie strove tobring the military establishment under greater control, promoting more ethnicAmharic to the officer corps and plotting discord by playing military factionsagainst each other.

However, discontentremained pervasive within the military, particularly among the rank-and-filesoldiers, who chafed at the low pay and poor working conditions.  In January 1974, in what became the first of aseries of decisive events, soldiers stationed at Negele, Sidamo Province,mutinied in protest of low wages and other poor conditions; in the followingdays, military units in other locations mutinied as well.  In February 1974, as a result of risinginflation and unemployment and deteriorating economic conditions resulting fromthe global oil crisis of the previous year (1973), teachers, workers, andstudents launched protest demonstrations and marches in Addis Ababa demanding price rollbacks, higherlabor wages, and land reform in the countryside.  These protests degenerated into bloody riots.  In the aftermath, on February 28, 1974,long-time Prime Minister Aklilu Habte-Wold resignedand was replaced by Endalkachew Makonnen, whose government raised the wages of military personnel and set pricecontrols to curb inflation.  Even so, thegovernment, which was controlled by nobles, aristocrats, and wealthylandowners, refused or were unaware of the need to implement major reforms inthe face of growing public opposition.

In March 1974, a group ofmilitary officers led by Colonel Alem Zewde Tessema formed the multi-unit “Armed Forces Coordinating Committee” (AFCC)consisting of representatives from different sectors of the Ethiopian military,tasked with enforcing cohesion among the various forces and assisting thegovernment in maintaining authority in the face of growing unrest.  In June 1974, reformist junior officers ofthe AFCC, desiring greater reforms and dissatisfied with what they saw was theAFCC’s close association with the government, broke away and formed their owngroup.

This latter group, whichtook the name “Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, andTerritorial Army, soon grew to about 110 to 120 enlisted men and officers (noneabove the rank of major) from the 40 military and security units across thecountry, and elected Majors Mengistu Haile Mariam  and Atnafu Abate as its chairman and vice-chairman,respectively.  This group, which becameknown simply as Derg (an Ethiopian word meaning“Committee” or “Council”), had as its (initial) aims to serve as a conduit forvarious military and police units in order to maintain peace and order, andalso to uphold the military’s integrity by resolving grievances, discipliningerrant officers, and curbing corruption in the armed forces.

Derg operated anonymously(e.g. its members were not publicly known initially), but worked behind suchpopulist slogans as “Ethiopia First”, “Land to the Peasants”, and “Democracyand Equality to all” to gain broad support among the military and generalpopulation.  By July 1974, the Derg’spower was felt not only within the military but in the government itself, andHaile Selassie was forced to implement a number of political measures,including the release of political prisoners, the return of political exiles tothe country, passage of a new constitution, and more critically, to allow Dergto work closely with the government. Under Derg pressure, the government of Prime Minister Makonnencollapsed; succeeding as Prime Minister was Mikael Imru, an aristocrat who heldleftist ideas.