Daniel Orr's Blog, page 58

June 26, 1940 – World War II: The Soviet Union demands that Romania cede Bessarabia and northern Bukovina

On June 26, 1940, through an ultimatum, the Soviet Uniondemanded that Romania cedeBessarabia and northern Bukovina. Romania yieldedunder the threat of Soviet invasion of these territories, which two days laterwere occupied by the Soviet Army.

(Taken from The Balkan Campaign – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Europe – Vol. 6)

Germany and Italymediated two territorial disputes involving Romaniaand its neighbors: on August 21, 1940, Romaniawas persuaded to cede Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria,and on August 30, 1940, it also relinquished one-third of Transylvania to Hungary.  A few weeks earlier, in late June-early July1940, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had used strong-arm tactics to force Romania to cede its northeastern regions ofBessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union.

Meanwhile, Hitler strove toconvince Mussolini to stall the latter’s territorial ambitions in theBalkans.  Mussolini had long viewed thatin the German-Italian partition of Europe, southeastern Europeand the Balkans fell inside the Italian sphere of control.  Italian forces had invaded Albania in April 1939 (separate article), and after the fall of France in June 1940, Mussolini exerted pressureon Greece and Yugoslavia,and threatened them with invasion.  Atthat time, Hitler was able to convince Mussolini to suspend temporarily hisBalkan ambitions and instead focus Italian efforts on defeating the British in North Africa.

But on October 7, 1940, atthe request of Romanian dictator Ion Antonescu, German forces entered Romania to guard against a Soviet invasion; forHitler, it was to protect the vital Ploiestioil fields.  Mussolini was outraged by thisGerman action, as he believed that Romania fell inside his zone ofcontrol.  Also for Mussolini, Hitler’smove into Romaniawas only the latest in a long list of stunts that had been made withoutpreviously consulting him, and one that had to be reciprocated, or as Mussoliniput it, “to repay him [Hitler] with his own coin”.  Hitler had invaded Poland,Denmark, Norway, France,and the Low Countries without informingMussolini beforehand.

The Balkan region and nearby Italy, Austria (annexed by Germany), and Hungary

On October 28, 1940,Mussolini, without notifying Hitler, launched the invasion of Greece (previous article), despite insufficient military preparation andagainst the counsel of his top generals. The operation was a disaster, as the motivated Greek Army threw back theItalians to Albania,and then launched its own offensive. Within three months, the Greeks occupied a quarter of Albanianterritory.  Greece had declared its neutralityat the start of World War II.  Butbecause of the Italian invasion, the Greek government turned to Britainfor assistance.  In early November 1940,British forces had arrived, and occupied two strategically important Greekislands, Crete and Limnos.

The unexpected Italian attackon Greeceand likelihood of British intervention in the Balkans shocked Hitler, seeingthat his efforts to try and maintain peace in the region had failed.  His prized Ploesti oil fields and the wholesoutheastern Europe were now vulnerable.  On November 4, 1940, Hitler decided to becomeinvolved in Greecein order to bail out his beleaguered ally Mussolini and to forestall theBritish.  On November 12, 1940, theGerman High Command issued Directive No. 18, which laid out the German plan tocontain the British in the Mediterranean: German forces would invade northern Greece and Gibraltar in January 1941, and thenassist the Italians in attacking Egypt in the fall of 1941.  However, Spain’spro-Axis dictator General Francisco Franco refused to allow German troops into Spain, forcing Germanyto suspend its invasion of Gibraltar.  On December 13, 1940, the German militaryissued Directive No. 20, which finalized the invasion of Greece under codename OperationMarita.  In the final plan, German forcesin Bulgaria would open a second front in northeastern Greece and capture thewhole Greek northern coast, link up with the Italians in the northwest, and ifnecessary, push south toward Athens and seize the rest of Greece.  Operation Marita was scheduled for March1941; however, delays would cause the invasion to be launched one month later.

For the invasion of Greece, Hitler considered it necessary to bringinto the Axis fold the governments of Hungary,Romania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia, notwithstanding theirstated neutrality at the start of the World War II.  With their cooperation, German forces wouldcross their territories through Central and Eastern Europe,as well as control their military-important infrastructures, such as airfieldsand communications systems.  Hungary, which had benefited territorially inthe German seizure of Czechoslovakiaand Axis arbitration of Transylvania, was drawn naturally to Germany.  On November 20, 1940, the Hungariangovernment joined the Tripartite Pact[1].  Three days later, Romania also joined the Pact, asRomanian leader Antonescu was motivated to do so by fear of a Sovietinvasion.  In succeeding months, largenumbers of German forces and weapons, passing through Hungary, would assemble in Romania, mainly for the planned invasion of the Soviet Union (whose operational plan would be finalizedin December 1940 under the top-secret Operation Barbarossa).

Bulgaria balked at joining the Pact and thus be openly associatedwith the Axis, and also was concerned that participating in the invasion of Greece would leave its eastern border vulnerableto an attack by Turkey,which was allied with Greece.  The Bulgarians also were aware of a Sovietplan to capture Varna, Bulgaria’s Black sea port, which the Sovietswould use to seize control of the Turkish Straits, which was a source of along-standing dispute between the Soviet Union and Turkey. 

However, Hitler exertedstrong diplomatic pressure on Bulgariaand also promised to protect Bulgarian territorial integrity.  Bulgaria acquiesced and agreed toallow German troops to enter Bulgarian territory.  On February 28, 1941, German engineeringcrews bridged the Danube River at the Romanian-Bulgarian border, and the firstGerman units crossed into Bulgariaand continued to that country’s eastern border. The next day, March 1st, Bulgaria joined the TripartitePact, officially joining the Axis.  OnMarch 2, 1941, German forces involved in Operation Marita entered Bulgariaand proceeded south to the Bulgarian-Greek border.

To assure Turkey of Germanintentions, Hitler wrote to the Turkish government to explain that the Germanpresence in Bulgaria wasdirected at Greece.  To further allay the Turks, German troopswere positioned far from the Turkish border. The Turkish government accepted the German clarification, and agreed tostand down its forces during the German attack on Greece.

Meanwhile, Greece was aware of German plans, and in theprevious months, held talks with Britainand Yugoslaviato formulate a common strategy against the anticipated German attack.  The dilemma for Greece was that by March1941, the greater part of its military forces were still tied down against theItalians in southern Albania, leaving insufficient units to defend the rest ofthe country’s northern border.  At therequest of the Greek government, Britainand its dominions, Australiaand New Zealand, sent 58,000troops to Greece; this forcearrived in March 1941 and deployed in Greece’s north central border.

With regards to Yugoslavia,Hitler exerted great effort to try and persuade the officially neutral butAllied-leaning government of Yugoslav Prime Minister Dragisha Cvetkovic to jointhe Axis.  In a series of high-levelmeetings between the two countries which even included Hitler’s participation,the Germans offered sizable rewards to Yugoslaviafor joining the Axis, including Greek territory that would include Salonicawhich would give Yugoslaviaaccess to the Aegean Sea.  Talks went nowhere until Hitler met withPrince Paul on March 4, 1941, which led two weeks later to the Yugoslav governmentagreeing to join the Axis.  On March 25,1941, Yugoslavia signed theTripartite Pact, motivated by a secret clause in the agreement that containedthree stipulations: the Axis promised to respect Yugoslavian sovereignty andterritorial integrity, the Yugoslavian military would not be required to assistthe Axis, and Yugoslaviawould not be required to allow Axis forces to pass through its territory.  But two days later, March 27, the pro-AlliedSerbian military high command deposed the Yugoslav government and installeditself in a military regime, arrested Prince Paul, and named the 17-year oldminor crown prince as King Peter II.  Thenew military government assured Germanythat Yugoslaviawanted to maintain friendly ties between the two countries, albeit that itwould not ratify the Tripartite Pact. Anti-German mass demonstrations broke out in Belgrade and other Serbian cities.

As a result of the coup, afurious and humiliated Hitler believed that Yugoslaviahad taken a stand favoring the Allies, despite the new Yugoslav government’sconciliatory position toward Germany.  On March 27, 1941, just hours after the coup,Hitler convened the German military high command and stated his intention to“destroy Yugoslaviaas a military power and sovereign state”. He ordered the formulation of an invasion plan for Yugoslavia, which was to be carried out togetherwith the attack on Greece.  Despite the time constraint (the attack onGreece was set to be launched in ten days, April 6, 1941), the German militaryfinalized a lightning attack for Yugoslavia, code-named Operation 25, to beunder taken in coordination with the operation on Greece.

Hitler invited Bulgaria to participate in the attack on Yugoslavia,but the Bulgarian government declined, citing the need to defend itsborders.  As well, Hungary demurred, as it had just recently signeda non-aggression pact with Yugoslavia,but it agreed to allow the German invasion forces to mass in its southwesternborder with Yugoslavia.  Romania was not asked to join theinvasion.

Mussolini, after conferringwith Hitler, agreed to participate, and the Italian forces were to undertakethe following: temporarily cease operations at the Albanian front; protect theflank of the German forces invading from Austriato Slovenia; seize Yugoslavterritories along the Adriatic coast; and link up with German forces for theinvasion of Greece.

On April 3, 1941, Yugoslavia sent emissaries to Moscowto try and arrange a mutual defense treaty with the Soviet Union.  Instead, on April 5,the Soviet government agreed only to a treaty of friendship and non-aggressionwith Yugoslavia,which did not promise Soviet protection in case of foreign aggression.  As a result, Hitler was free to invade Yugoslaviawithout fear of Soviet intervention.  OnApril 6, 1941, Germany and Italy launched the invasions of Yugoslavia and Greece, discussed separately in thenext two chapters.

[1] The Tripartite Pact was a mutual-defense treaty originally signedby Germany, Italy, and Japan on September 27, 1940.

June 25, 1950 – Korean War: North Korea invades South Korea

On June 25, 1950, North Korealaunched a full-scale invasion of South Korea.  The invading force, which consisted of 90,000troops and supported by armored and artillery units, crossed the 38thparallel from east to west of the line. South Korean border defenses south of the line were easilyovercome.  South Korean forces, lackingheavy artillery and powerful anti-tank weapons, surrendered or defected enmasse, or fled south.  On June 28, 1950, Seoul fell, with PresidentSyngman Rhee and his government having vacated the capital in advance of theNorth Korean offensive.  To forestall theNorth Koreans, the South Korean military destroyed the main bridge south of Seoul across the Han River,causing the deaths of hundreds of civilians who were crossing the bridge at thetime.  Thousands of South Korean troopsalso were unable to leave the city and were later captured by the NorthKoreans.  By the third day of theinvasion, South Koreawas verging on collapse.

Background DuringWorld War II, the Allied Powers met many times to decide the disposition ofJapanese territorial holdings after the Allies had achieved victory.  With regards to Korea,at the Cairo Conference held in November 1943, the United States, Britain,and Nationalist China agreed that “in due course, Korea shall become free andindependent”.  Then at the YaltaConference of February 1945, the Soviet Unionpromised to enter the war in the Asia-Pacific in two or three months after theEuropean theater of World War II ended.

(Excerpts taken from Korean War – Wars of the 20th Century: Volume 5 – Twenty Wars in Asia)

Then with the Soviet Army invading northern Korea on August 9, 1945, the United States became concerned that the SovietUnion might well occupy the whole Korean Peninsula.  The U.S.government, acting on a hastily prepared U.S.military plan to divide Koreaat the 38th parallel, presented the proposal to the Soviet government, whichthe latter accepted.

The Soviet Army continued moving south and stopped at the38th parallel on August 16, 1945.  U.S. forces soon arrived in southern Koreaand advanced north, reaching the 38th parallel on September 8, 1945.  Then in official ceremonies, the U.S.and Soviet commands formally accepted the Japanese surrender in theirrespective zones of occupation. Thereafter, the American and Soviet commandsestablished military rule in their occupation zones.

As both the U.S. and Soviet governments wanted to reunifyKorea, in a conference in Moscow in December 1945, the Allied Powers agreed toform a four-power (United States, Soviet Union, Britain, and Nationalist China)five-year trusteeship over Korea.  Duringthe five-year period, a U.S.-Soviet Joint Commission would work out the processof forming a Korean government.  Butafter a series of meetings in 1946-1947, the Joint Commission failed to achieveanything.  In September 1947, the U.S.government referred the Korean question to the United Nations (UN).  The reasons for the U.S.-Soviet JointCommission’s failure to agree to a mutually acceptable Korean government arethree-fold and to some extent all interrelated: intense opposition by Koreansto the proposed U.S.-Soviet trusteeship; the struggle for power among thevarious ideology-based political factions; and most important, the emergingCold War confrontation between the United Statesand the Soviet Union.

Historically, Koreafor many centuries had been a politically and ethnically integrated state,although its independence often was interrupted by the invasions by itspowerful neighbors, Chinaand Japan.  Because of this protracted independence, inthe immediate post-World War II period, Koreans aspired for self-rule, andviewed the Allied trusteeship plan as an insult to their capacity to run theirown affairs.  However, at the same time, Korea’spolitical climate was anarchic, as different ideological persuasions, fromright-wing, left-wing, communist, and near-center political groups, clashedwith each other for political power.  Asa result of Japan’s annexationof Koreain 1910, many Korean nationalist resistance groups had emerged.  Among these nationalist groups were theunrecognized “Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea”led by pro-West, U.S.-based Syngman Rhee; and a communist-allied anti-Japanesepartisan militia led by Kim Il-sung. Both men would play major roles in the Korean War.  At the same time, tens of thousands ofKoreans took part in the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and the ChineseCivil War, joining and fighting either for Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalistforces, or for Mao Zedong’s Chinese Red Army.

The Korean anti-Japanese resistance movement, which operatedmainly out of Manchuria, was divided alongideological lines.  Some groups advocatedWestern-style capitalist democracy, while others espoused Sovietcommunism.  However, all were stronglyanti-Japanese, and launched attacks on Japanese forces in Manchuria,China, and Korea.

On their arrival in the southern Korean zone in September1948, U.S.forces imposed direct rule through the United States Army Military GovernmentIn Korea (USAMGIK).  Earlier, members ofthe Korean Communist Party in Seoul(the southern capital) had sought to fill the power vacuum left by the defeatedJapanese forces, and set up “local people’s committees” throughout the Koreanpeninsula.  Then two days before U.S.forces arrived, Korean communists of the “Central People’s Committee”proclaimed the “Korean People’s Republic”.

In October 1945, under the auspices of a U.S. military agent, Syngman Rhee, the formerpresident of the “Provisional Government of the Republicof Korea” arrived in Seoul. The USAMGIK refused to recognize the communist Korean People’s Republic,as well as the pro-West “Provisional Government”.  Instead, U.S. authorities wanted to form apolitical coalition of moderate rightist and leftist elements.  Thus, in December 1946, under U.S.sponsorship, moderate and right-wing politicians formed the South KoreanInterim Legislative Assembly.  However,this quasi-legislative body was opposed by the communists and other left-wingand right-wing groups.

In the wake of the U.S. authorities’ breaking up thecommunists’ “people’s committees” violence broke out in the southern zoneduring the last months of 1946.  Calledthe Autumn Uprising, the unrest was carried out by left-aligned workers,farmers, and students, leading to many deaths through killings, violentconfrontations, strikes, etc.  Althoughin many cases, the violence resulted from non-political motives (such astargeting Japanese collaborators or settling old scores), American authoritiesbelieved that the unrest was part of a communist plot.  They therefore declared martial law in thesouthern zone.  Following the U.S.military’s crackdown on leftist activities, the communist militants went intohiding and launched an armed insurgency in the southern zone, which would playa role in the coming war.

Meanwhile in the northern zone, Soviet commanders initiallyworked to form a local administration under a coalition of nationalists, Marxists,and even Christian politicians.  But inOctober 1945, Kim Il-sung, the Korean resistance leader who also was a SovietRed Army officer, quickly became favored by Soviet authorities.  In February 1946, the “Interim People’sCommittee”, a transitional centralized government, was formed and led by KimIl-sung who soon consolidated power (sidelining the nationalists and Christianleaders), and nationalized industries, and launched centrally planned economicand reconstruction programs based on the Soviet-model emphasizing heavyindustry.

By 1947, the Cold War had begun: the Soviet Union tightenedits hold on the socialist countries of Eastern Europe, and the United Statesannounced a new foreign policy, the Truman Doctrine, aimed at stopping thespread of communism.  The United States also implemented the MarshallPlan, an aid program for Europe’s post-World War II reconstruction, which wascondemned by the Soviet Union as an American anti-communist plot aimed atdividing Europe.  As a result, Europebecame divided into the capitalist West and socialist East.

Reflecting these developments, in Koreaby mid-1945, the United States became resigned to the likelihoodthat the temporary military partition of the Korean peninsula at the 38thparallel would become a permanent division along ideological grounds.  In September 1947, with U.S. Congressrejecting a proposed aid package to Korea,the U.S.government turned over the Korean issue to the UN.  In November 1947, the United Nations GeneralAssembly (UNGA) affirmed Korea’ssovereignty and called for elections throughout the Korean peninsula, which wasto be overseen by a newly formed body, the United Nations Temporary Commissionon Korea (UNTCOK).

However, the Soviet government rejected the UNGA resolution,stating that the UN had no jurisdiction over the Korean issue, and preventedUNTCOK representatives from entering the Soviet-controlled northern zone.  As a result, in May 1948, elections were heldonly in the American-controlled southern zone, which even so, experiencedwidespread violence that caused some 600 deaths.  Elected was the Korean National Assembly, alegislative body.  Two months later (inJuly 1948), the Korean National Assembly ratified a new national constitutionwhich established a presidential form of government.  Syngman Rhee, whose party won the most numberof legislative seats, was proclaimed as (the first) president.  Then on August 15, 1948, southernersproclaimed the birth of the Republicof Korea (soon more commonly known as South Korea), ostensibly with the state’ssovereignty covering the whole Korean Peninsula.

A consequence of the South Korean elections was thedisplacement of the political moderates, because of their opposition to boththe elections and the division of Korea.  By contrast, the hard-line anti-communistSyngman Rhee was willing to allow the (temporary) partition of thepeninsula.  Subsequently, the United Statesmoved to support the Rhee regime, turning its back on the political moderateswhom USAMGIK had backed initially.

Meanwhile in the Soviet-controlled northern zone, on August25, 1948, parliamentary elections were held to the Supreme NationalAssembly.  Two weeks later (on September9, 1948), the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (soon more commonly knownas North Korea) was proclaimed, with Kim Il-Sung as (its first) PrimeMinister.  As with South Korea, North Korea declared itssovereignty over the whole Korean peninsula

The formation of two opposing rival states in Korea,each determined to be the sole authority, now set the stage for the comingwar.  In December 1948, acting on areport by UNTCOK, the UN declared that the Republicof Korea (South Korea) was the legitimate Korean polity, a decision thatwas rejected by both the Soviet Union and North Korea.  Also in December 1948, the Soviet Unionwithdrew its forces from North Korea. In June 1949, the United Stateswithdrew its forces from South Korea. However, Soviet and American military advisors remained, in the Northand South, respectively.

In March 1949, on a visit to Moscow,Kim Il-sung asked Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader, for military assistance fora North Korean planned invasion of South Korea.  Kim Il-sung explained that an invasion wouldbe successful, since most South Koreans opposed the Rhee regime, and that thecommunist insurgency in the south had sufficiently weakened the South Koreanmilitary.  Stalin did not give hisconsent, as the Soviet government currently was pressed by other Cold Warevents in Europe.

However, by early 1950, the Cold War situation had beenaltered dramatically.  In September 1949,the Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb, ending the United States’ monopoly on nuclearweapons.  In October 1949, Chinesecommunists, led by Mao Zedong, defeated the West-aligned Nationalist governmentof Chiang Kai-shek in the Chinese Civil War, and proclaimed the People’sRepublic of China, a socialist state. Then in 1950, Vietnamese communists (called Viet Minh) turned the FirstIndochina War from an anti-colonial war against Franceinto a Cold War conflict involving the Soviet Union, China,and the United States.  In February 1950, the Soviet Union and China signed the Sino-Soviet Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance Treaty, where the Sovietgovernment would provide military and financial aid to China.

Furthermore, the Soviet government, long wanting to gaugeAmerican strategic designs in Asia, was encouraged by two recent developments:First, the U.S. government did not intervene in the Chinese Civil War; andsecond, in January 1949, the United States announced that South Korea was notpart of the U.S. “defensive perimeter” in Asia, and U.S. Congress rejected anaid package to South Korea.  To Stalin,the United Stateswas resigned to the whole northeast Asian mainland falling to communism.

In April 1950, the Soviet Union approved North Korea’s planto invade South Korea, but subject to two crucial conditions: Soviet forceswould not be involved in the fighting, and China’s People’s Liberation Army(PLA, i.e. the Chinese armed forces) must agree to intervene in the war ifnecessary.  In May 1950, in a meetingbetween Kim Il-sung and Mao Zedong, the Chinese leader expressed concern thatthe United States mightintervene if the North Koreans attacked South Korea.  In the end, Mao agreed to send Chinese forcesif North Koreawas invaded.  North Korea then hastened itsinvasion plan.

The North Korean armed forces (officially: the KoreanPeople’s Army), having been organized into its present form concurrent with therise of Kim Il-sung, had grown in strength with large Soviet support.  And in 1949-1950, with Kim Il-sungemphasizing a massive military buildup, by the eve of the invasion, NorthKorean forces boasted some 150,000–200,000 soldiers, 280 tanks, 200 artillerypieces, and 200 planes.

By contrast, the South Korean military (officially: Republic of Korea Armed Forces), which consistedlargely of police units, was unprepared for war.  The United States, not wanting a Korean war, held back fromdelivering weapons to South Korea,particularly since President Rhee had declared his intention to invade North Koreain order to reunify the peninsula.  Bythe time of the North Korean invasion, South Korean weapons, which the United Stateshad limited to defensive strength, proved grossly inadequate.  South Korea had 100,000 soldiers(of whom only 65,000 were combat troops); it also had no tanks and possessedonly small-caliber artillery pieces and an assortment of liaison and traineraircraft.

North Koreahad envisioned its invasion as a concentration of forces along the Ongjin Peninsula.  North Korean forces would make a swiftassault on Seoulto surround and destroy the South Korean forces there.  Rhee’s government then would collapse,leading to the fall of South Korea. Then on June 21, 1950, four days before the scheduled invasion, KimIl-sung believed that South Korea had become aware of the invasion planand had fortified its defenses.  Herevised his plan for an offensive all across the 38th parallel.  In the months preceding the war, numerousborder skirmishes had begun breaking out between the two sides.

June 24, 1954 – First Indochina War: The Viet Minh ambushes French forces at Mang Yang Pass

On June 24, 1954, a French force called Mobile Group 100(aka G.M. 100) comprising 3,500 troops with heavy equipment and vehicles, wasambushed by the Viet Minh at Vietnam’sMang Yang region, suffering 500 killed, 600 wounded, and 800 captured. G.M. 100had just abandoned its remote base in the Central Highlands in the wake of thedisastrous Battle of Dien Bien Phu and was traveling from An Khe for Pleikuwhen the ambush took place. The five-day battle (June 24-29, 1954) was the lastin the First Indochina War. On July 20, 1954, the Geneva Agreement was signedthat imposed a general ceasefire, and on August 1, an armistice was signed thatpartitioned Vietnamat the 17th Parallel.

(Taken from First Indochina War – Wars of the 20th Century –Vol. 5)

Aftermath of theFirst Indochina War By the time of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, France knewthat it could not win the war, and turned its attention on trying to worktoward a political settlement and an honorable withdrawal from Indochina.  ByFebruary 1954, opinion polls at home showed that only 8% of the Frenchpopulation supported the war.  However,the Dien Bien Phu debacle dashed French hopesof negotiating under favorable withdrawal terms.  On May 8, 1954, one day after the Frenchdefeat at Dien Bien Phu, representatives from the major powers: United States,Soviet Union, Britain, China, and France, and the Indochina states: Cambodia,Laos, and the two rival Vietnamese states, Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV)and State of Vietnam, met at Geneva (the Geneva Conference) to negotiate apeace settlement for Indochina.  TheConference also was envisioned to resolve the crisis in the Korean Peninsulain the aftermath of the Korean War (separate article), where deliberationsended on June 15, 1954 without any settlements made.

On the Indochina issue, onJuly 21, 1954, a ceasefire and a “final declaration” were agreed to by theparties.  The ceasefire was agreed to byFrance and the DRV, which divided Vietnam into two zones at the 17thparallel, with the northern zone to be governed by the DRV and the southernzone to be governed by the State of Vietnam. The 17th parallel was intended to serve merely as a provisional militarydemarcation line, and not as a political or territorial boundary.      The French and their allies in thenorthern zone departed and moved to the southern zone, while the Viet Minh inthe southern zone departed and moved to the northern zone (although somesouthern Viet Minh remained in the south on instructions from the DRV).  The 17th parallel was also a demilitarizedzone (DMZ) of 6 miles, 3 miles on each side of the line.

The ceasefire agreement provided for a period of 300 dayswhere Vietnamese civilians were free to move across the 17th parallel on eitherside of the line.  About one millionnortherners, predominantly Catholics but also including members of the upper classesconsisting of landowners, businessmen, academics, and anti-communistpoliticians, and the middle and lower classes, moved to the southern zone, thismass exodus was prompted by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) andState of Vietnam in a massive propaganda campaign, as well as the peoples’fears of repression under a communist regime.

In August 1954, planes of the French Air Force and hundredsof ships of the French Navy and U.S. Navy (the latter under Operation Passageto Freedom) carried out the movement of Vietnamese civilians from north tosouth.  Some 100,000 southerners, mostlyViet Minh cadres and their families and supporters, moved to the northernzone.  A peacekeeping force, called theInternational Control Commission and comprising contingents from India, Canada,and Poland,was tasked with enforcing the ceasefire agreement.  Separate ceasefire agreements also weresigned for Laos and Cambodia.

Another agreement, titled the “Final Declaration of theGeneva Conference on the Problem of Restoring Peace in Indo-China, July 21,1954”, called for Vietnamese general elections to be held in July 1956, and thereunification of Vietnam.  France DRV, the Soviet Union, China, and Britain signed thisDeclaration.  Both the State of Vietnamand the United Statesdid not sign, the former outright rejecting the Declaration, and the lattertaking a hands-off stance, but promising not to oppose or jeopardize theDeclaration.

By the time of the Geneva Conference, the Viet Minhcontrolled a majority of Vietnam’sterritory and appeared ready to deal a final defeat on the demoralized Frenchforces.  The Viet Minh’s agreeing toapparently less favorable terms (relative to its commanding battlefieldposition) was brought about by the following factors: First, despite Dien BienPhu, French forces in Indochina were far from being defeated, and still held anoverwhelming numerical and firepower advantage over the Viet Minh; Second, theSoviet Union and China cautioned the Viet Minh that a continuation of the warmight prompt an escalation of American military involvement in support of theFrench; and Third, French Prime Minister Pierre Mendes-France had vowed toachieve a ceasefire within thirty days or resign.  The Soviet Union and China, fearing the collapse of the Mendes-Franceregime and its replacement by a right-wing government that would continue thewar, pressed Ho to tone down Viet Minh insistence of a unified Vietnamunder the DRV, and agree to a compromise.

The planned July 1956 reunification election failed tomaterialize because the parties could not agree on how it was to beimplemented.  The Viet Minh proposedforming “local commissions” to administer the elections, while the United States,seconded by the State of Vietnam, wanted the elections to be held under UnitedNations (UN) oversight.  The U.S.government’s greatest fear was a communist victory at the polls; U.S. PresidentEisenhower believed that “possibly 80%” of all Vietnamese would vote for Ho ifelections were held.  The State ofVietnam also opposed holding the reunification elections, stating that as ithad not signed the Geneva Accords, it was not bound to participate in thereunification elections; it also declared that under the repressive conditionsin the north under communist DRV, free elections could not be held there.  As a result, reunification elections were notheld, and Vietnamremained divided.

In the aftermath, both the DRV in the north (later commonlyknown as North Vietnam) and the State of Vietnam in the south (later as theRepublic of Vietnam, more commonly known as South Vietnam) became de factoseparate countries, both Cold War client states, with North Vietnam backed bythe Soviet Union, China, and other communist states, and South Vietnamsupported by the United States and other Western democracies.

In April 1956, Francepulled out its last troops from Vietnam;some two years earlier (June 1954), it had granted full independence to theState of Vietnam.  The year 1955 saw thepolitical consolidation and firming of Cold War alliances for both North Vietnam and South Vietnam.  In the north, Ho Chi Minh’s regime launchedrepressive land reform and rent reduction programs, where many tens ofthousands of landowners and property managers were executed, or imprisoned inlabor camps.  With the Soviet Union and China sending more weapons and advisors, North Vietnamfirmly fell within the communist sphere of influence.

In South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, whom Bao Dai appointed asPrime Minister in June 1954, also eliminated all political dissent starting in1955, particularly the organized crime syndicate Binh Xuyen in Saigon, and thereligious sects Hoa Hao and Cao Dai in the Mekong Delta, all of whichmaintained powerful armed groups.  InApril-May 1955, sections of central Saigon weredestroyed in street battles between government forces and the Binh Xuyenmilitia.

Then in October 1955, in a referendum held to determine theState of Vietnam’s political future, voters overwhelmingly supportedestablishing a republic as campaigned by Diem, and rejected the restoration ofthe monarchy as desired by Bao Dai. Widespread irregularities marred the referendum, with an implausible 98%of voters favoring Diem’s proposal.  OnOctober 23, 1955, Diem proclaimed the Republicof Vietnam (later commonly known as South Vietnam),with himself as its first president.  Itspredecessor, the State of Vietnam was dissolved, and Bao Dao fell from power.

In early 1956, Diem launched military offensives on the VietMinh and its supporters in the South Vietnamese countryside, leading tothousands being executed or imprisoned. Early on, militarily weak South Vietnamwas promised armed and financial support by the United States, which hoped to prop up the regime of PrimeMinister (later President) Diem, a devout Catholic and staunch anti-communist,as a bulwark against communism in Southeast Asia.

In January 1955, the first shipments of American weaponsarrived, followed shortly by U.S.military advisors, who were tasked to provide training to the South VietnameseArmy.  The U.S. government also endeavored toshore up the public image of the somewhat unknown Diem as a viable alternativeto the immensely popular Ho Chi Minh. However, the Diem regime was tainted by corruption and nepotism, andDiem himself ruled with autocratic powers, and implemented policies thatfavored the wealthy landowning class and Catholics at the expense of the lowerpeasant classes and Buddhists (the latter comprised 70% of the population).

By 1957, because of southern discontent with Diem’spolicies, a communist-influenced civilian uprising had grown in South Vietnam,with many acts of terrorism, including bombings and assassinations, takingplace.  Then in 1959, North Vietnam,frustrated at the failure of the reunification elections from taking place, andin response to the growing insurgency in the south, announced that it wasresuming the armed struggle (now against South Vietnam and the United States)in order to liberate the south and reunify Vietnam.  The stage was set for the cataclysmic SecondIndochina War, more popularly known as the Vietnam War.

June 23, 1913 – Second Balkan War: Greek forces capture Doiran from the Bulgarians

In the Battle ofKilkis-Lachanas (July 2-4, 1913), the Greeks dealt a majordefeat on the Bulgarian Second Army, which fell back all across the line.  The Greeks then took Serres and Doiran,bringing the whole eastern Macedoniaunder their control.  Then with thecapture of Xanthi and Komotini on July 13 and 14, respectively, and navallandings made at Kavala and Dedeagach, the Greeks gained possession of Western Thrace.

One feature of the fightingin this sector was the destruction of rival ethnic villages, with retreatingBulgarian forces targeting Greek settlements and the advancing Greek Armylaying waste to Bulgarian villages, in both cases intended to change theregion’s demographic composition.

The Bulgarians retreated tosouthern Bulgaria,pursued by the Greeks.  At the Kresna Mountainpass, the Bulgarian Second Army, now joined by the Fourth Army, set updefensive positions.  Then in theresulting Battle of Kresna Gorge (July 21-31, 1913), the advancing Greeks fellinto a prepared trap and were ambushed, and then pinned down.  Subsequently, the fighting becameinconclusive.

(Taken from Second Balkan War – Wars of the 20th Century –Vol. 3)

BackgroundThe First Balkan War allowed the Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria,Greece, and Montenegro) togain control of nearly the whole region of Rumelia.  Then in the 1913 Treaty of London, the major European powers recognized the independence ofAlbania, forcing Serbia, Greece,and Montenegro to withdrawtheir forces from their respective conquered territories in Albania.  Before the war, Serbiaand Bulgariahad entered into a secret agreement to partition Rumelia between them, inparticular the Macedonian region.  Nosimilar partition agreement was made with Greece, as the Greek Army was nothighly regarded and thought to be incapable of gaining much territory.

During the war, however, Bulgaria had concentrated much of its militaryresources in Eastern Thrace aiming to capture Constantinople, and left a muchsmaller force to invade Macedonia.  As a result, Bulgaria’sallies, Serbia and Greece,both of whom faced much less opposition in their sectors, gained considerableterritory during the war.  Serbian forcesadvanced into southern Macedoniapast the so-called “disputed zone” north of the Kriva Palanka-Ohrid Line, which was part of the Serbian-Bulgarian pre-warpartition agreement.  The Greek Army alsoperformed (surprisingly) well and seized a large section of southern Macedonia and portions of Western Thrace.

The Bulgarians appliedpressure on Serbiato withdraw its forces to the north and beyond Monastir in compliance withtheir pre-war arrangement.  Serbia refused, as it already had been forced torelinquish northern Albania,while Bulgaria had cededmuch less in Eastern Thrace, in the areas ofthe Enos-Midia Line.  Serbia insisted that new negotiations be startedon partitioning Macedonia, aproposal that was rejected by Bulgaria.  (In their pre-war agreement, Serbia was allowed to expand freely into Albania, while Bulgariacould take southern Macedonia.)

Bulgaria also put pressure on Greece to withdraw from Western Thrace andsouthern Macedonia,in particular from Thessalonica.  TheGreeks offered a compromise agreement, which the Bulgarians rejected.  Then as Bulgariacontinued its war posturing and increased its forces in the disputed areas, onJune 1, 1913, Serbia and Greecesecretly signed a mutual defense treaty aimed at countering a potentialBulgarian attack.  The agreement alsofixed a common border between Serbiaand Greece.  Consequently, small-scale fighting began tobreak out between Serbians and Bulgarians, whose forces were situated next toeach other following the recently concluded First Balkan War.  A small Montenegrin contingent also joinedranks with Serbian forces.

Meanwhile, Russia was alarmed at the impending break up ofthe Serbian-Bulgarian alliance, as this threatened Russia’s power ambitions in theBalkan region.  Tsar Nicholas II, the Russian monarch, offered to mediate, even sending apersonal letter to both the Serbian and Bulgarian kings.  Bulgaria was unyielding, however,forcing the Russian government to cancel the Russo-Bulgarian Treaty of 1902.

June 22, 1944 – World War II: Soviet forces launch Operation Bagration into Byelorussia

By June 1944, the Red Armyhad massed four Army Groups (1st, 2nd, and 4th,Belorussian Fronts, and 1st Baltic Front) for the recapture of Belorussia.  The offensive was codenamed OperationBagration[1]and had a combined force of 2 million troops, 5,800 tanks, 33,000 artillerypieces, and 7,800 planes.  Opposing thisforce was German Army Group Center, with 600,000 troops, 500 tanks, 2,600artillery pieces, and 600 planes – with reinforcements later arriving, thesenumbers would rise to 1 million troops, 1,300 tanks, 10,000 artillery pieces,and 1,200 planes.

On June 22, 1944, Soviet forcesattacked, and broke through the German lines all across the front, encirclingGerman units in several areas, including Minsk,the Belorussian capital, where 100,000 German troops were trapped, of which60,000 were captured and 40,000 killed. The German difficulties were further compounded because Hitler forbadeany retreat, and ordered that all positions be held at all costs, and turnedinto “fortresses” even if they fell behind enemy lines.  By mid-July 1944, the Red Army had seized allof Belarus,pushing back the Germans 450 miles to the 1941 border.  More critically, the Soviets establishedbridgeheads across the Vistula River leading to the outskirts of Warsaw, Poland’scapital. This Soviet victory was emphatic, thorough, and complete, and itsstrategic implications were wide-ranging: the German frontlines in the EasternFront from north to south were broken permanently; the German Army Groups lostphysical connections with each other; German Army Group North faced the dangerof being cut off in the Baltic region; and the regions comprisingGerman-controlled Poland, East Prussia, and even Germany itself, were nowthreatened.  The Red Army suffered heavylosses: 770,000 troops (180,000 killed or missing, 340,000-590,000 wounded andsick), 2,900 tanks, 2,500 artillery pieces, and 800 planes.  German manpower losses totaled 400,000 troops(26,000 killed, 110,000 wounded, and 264,000 missing and captured).  However, Red Army formations could easily berestored to full strength, because of the Soviet Union’snumerical superiority and industrial capacity, while German material losseswere becoming difficult to replace because of increasing difficulty inprocuring raw materials.

(Taken from Soviet Counter-attack and Defeat of Germany – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Europe – Vol. 6)

In support of OperationBagration, in mid-July 1944, Soviet 1st Ukrainian Front launched theLvov-Sandomierz Offensive in the south, whichcaptured Lvov and the whole northwest Ukraine, and thrust to the VistulaRiver at Sandomierz, establishing abridgehead and threatening to advance to Warsawfrom the southeast.  The Wehrmacht thuslost all its territories in the Ukraine.

Baltic StatesWith its capture of Belarus,the Red Army was poised to recapture the Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia,and Lithuania.  The Soviet position in the Baltic region wasgreatly enhanced during the course of Operation Bagration, when in July 1944,the 1st Baltic Front, holding the northern flank, recaptured much ofLithuania and then reached the Gulf of Riga on the Baltic Coast.  This feat effectively cut off German ArmyGroup North in Estonia and Latvia.

In September 1944, threeSoviet Army Groups (1st, 2nd, and 3rd BalticFronts) opened the Baltic Offensive: Tartu and southeast Estonia were retaken, and another Soviet advancereached Riga, Latvia’s capital. German forces,which still held much of Latviaand Estonia,including the region west of Narva, faced the danger of being outflanked andcut off.  In September 1944, in OperationAster carried out by the German Navy, German Army Group North was evacuatedfrom Estonia and Latvia, and landed in the CourlandPeninsula south of Riga. Here, the German force, which Hitler soon renamed Army Group Courland,resisted successive Red Army offensives until the end of World War II in Europe.  It wouldonly be on May 9, 1945, one day after Germany’s unconditional surrenderto the Allies, that the 200,000 German troops in the “Courland Pocket” surrendered to the Red Army.

The Balkans and Eastern and Central Europe With its advance into western Ukraine in April 1944, theRed Army, specifically the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts,including the 1st and 4th Ukrainian Fronts, was poised toadvance into Eastern Europe and the Balkans to knock out Germany’s Axis alliesfrom the war.  In May 1944, a Red Armyoffensive into Romania was stopped by a German-Romanian combined force, but asubsequent operation in August broke through, and the Soviets captured TarguFrumus and Iasi (Jassy) on August 21 and Chisinau on August 24.  The Axis defeat was thorough: German 6thArmy, which had been reconstituted after its destruction in Stalingrad, wasagain encircled and destroyed, German 8th Army, severely mauled,withdrew to Hungary, and the Romanian Army, severely lacking modern weapons,suffered heavy casualties.  On August 23,Michael I, King of Romania, deposed the pro-Nazi government of Prime MinisterIon Antonescu and announced his acceptance of the armistice offered by Britain,the United States, and the Soviet Union. Romania then switchedsides to the Allies and declared war on Germany.  The Romanian government thereafter joined thewar against Germany, andallowed Soviet forces to pass through its territory to continue into Bulgariain the south.

The rapid collapse of Axisforces in Romania led topolitical turmoil in Bulgaria.  On August 26, 1944, the Bulgarian governmentdeclared its neutrality in the war. Bulgarians were ethnic Slavs like the Russians, and Bulgaria did not send troops to attack theSoviet Union and in fact continued to maintain diplomatic ties with Moscow during thewar.  However, its government waspro-German and the country was an Axis partner. On September 2, a new Bulgarian government was formed comprising thepolitical opposition, which did not stop the Soviet Union from declaring war onBulgariathree days later.  On September 8, Sovietforces entered Bulgaria,meeting no resistance as the Bulgarian government stood down its army.  The next day, Sofia, the Bulgarian capital, was captured,and the Soviets lent their support behind the new Bulgarian governmentcomprising communist-led resistance fighters of the Fatherland Front.  Bulgariathen declared war on Germany,sending its forces in support of the Red Army’s continued advance to the west.

The Red Army now set itssights on Serbia,the main administrative region of pre-World War II Yugoslavia.  Yugoslavia itself had beendismembered by the occupying Axis powers. For Germany, the lossof Serbia would cut off itsforces’ main escape route from Greece.  As a result, the German High Commandallocated more troops to Serbiaand also ordered the evacuation of German forces from other Balkan regions.

Occupied Europe’s mosteffective resistance struggle was located in Yugoslavia.  By 1944, the communist Yugoslav Partisanmovement, led by Josip Broz Tito, controlled the mountain regions of Bosnia, Montenegro,and western Serbia.  In late September 1944, the Soviet 2ndand 3rd Ukrainian Fronts, thrusting from Bulgariaand Romania, together withthe Bulgarian Army attacking from western Bulgaria,launched their offensive into Serbia.  The attack was aided by Yugoslav partisansthat launched coordinated offensives against the Axis as well as conductingsabotage actions on German communications and logistical lines – the combinedforces captured Serbia, mostimportantly the capital Belgrade,which fell on October 20, 1944.  Germanforces in the Balkans escaped via the more difficult routes through Bosnia and Croatia in October 1944.  For the remainder of the war, Yugoslavpartisans liberated the rest of Yugoslavia;the culmination of their long offensive was their defeat of the pro-NaziUstase-led fascist government in Croatiain April-May 1945, and then their advance to neighboring Slovenia.

The succession of Red Armyvictories in Eastern Europe brought great alarm to the pro-Nazi government in Hungary, which was Germany’s last European Axispartner.  Then when in late September1944, the Soviets crossed the borders from Romaniaand Serbia into Hungary, Miklos Horthy, the Hungarian regent andhead of state, announced in mid-October that his government had signed anarmistice with the Soviet Union.  Hitler promptly forced Horthy, under threat,to revoke the armistice, and German troops quickly occupied the country.

The Soviet campaign in Hungary, which lasted six months, provedextremely brutal and difficult both for the Red Army and German-Hungarianforces, with fierce fighting taking place in western Hungary as the numerical weight ofthe Soviets forced back the Axis.  InOctober 1944, a major tank battle was fought at Debrecen, where the panzers of German ArmyGroup Fretter-Pico (named after General Maximilian Fretter-Pico) beat backthree Soviet tank corps of 2nd Ukrainian Front.  But in late October, a powerful Sovietoffensive thrust all the way to the outskirts of Budapest, the Hungarian capital, by November7, 1944.

Two Soviet pincer arms thenadvanced west in a flanking maneuver, encircling the city on December 23, 1944,and starting a 50-day siege.  Fierceurban warfare then broke out at Pest, the flat eastern section of the city, andthen later across the Danube River at Buda, thewestern hilly section, where German-Hungarian forces soon retreated.  In January 1945, three attempts by Germanarmored units to relieve the trapped garrison failed, and on February 13, 1945,Budapest fellto the Red Army.  The Soviets thencontinued their advance across Hungary. In early March 1945, Hitler launchedOperation Spring Awakening, aimed at protecting the Lake Balaton oil fields insouthwestern Hungary, whichwas one of Germany’slast remaining sources of crude oil. Through intelligence gathering, the Soviets became aware of the plan,and foiled the offensive, and then counter-attacked, forcing the remainingGerman forces in Hungaryto withdraw across the Austrian border.

The Germans then hastened toconstruct defense lines in Austria,which officially was an integral part of Germany since the Anschluss of1938.  In early April 1945, Soviet 3rdUkrainian Front crossed the border from Hungaryinto Austria, meeting onlylight opposition in its advance toward Vienna.  Only undermanned German forces defended theAustrian capital, which fell on April 13, 1945. Although some fierce fighting occurred, Viennawas spared the widespread destruction suffered by Budapest through the efforts of the anti-NaziAustrian resistance movement, which assisted the Red Army’s entry into thecity.  A provisional government for Austriawas set up comprising a coalition of conservatives, democrats, socialists, andcommunists, which gained the approval of Stalin, who earlier had planned toinstall a pro-Soviet government regime from exiled Austrian communists.  The Red Army continued advancing across otherparts of Austria,with the Germans still holding large sections of regions in the west and south.By early May 1945, French, British, and American troops had crossed into Austria from the west, which together with theSoviets, would lead to the four-power Allied occupation (as in post-war Germany) of Austria after the war.

[1] Named after Russian General Pyotr Bagration, who fought againstNapoleon’s invasion of Russiain 1812.  The operation on Belaruswas conceived during Allied talks in the Teheran Conference (November-December1943), by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister WinstonChurchill, and Stalin.  The “Big Three”Allied Powers agreed to launch a coordinated simultaneous attack from west andeast of Germany, which wasrealized with Operation Overlord, the Anglo-American amphibious landings in Normandy, Franceon June 6, 1944, and Operation Bagration two weeks later.

June 21, 1940 – World War II: Italy launches an invasion into France

On June 21, 1940, Italian forces launched a generaloffensive across the Alpine Front, successfully gaining some territory butfailing to break the French resistance. The offensive came just before theFrench and Germans were about to sign an armistice in the wake of the Germanblitzkrieg into France.

(Taken from Battle of France – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Europe – Vol. 6)

Italyentered World War II on Germany’sside on June 10, 1940 by declaring war on Franceand Britain.Italian leader Benito Mussolini rejected the counsel of his top commanders thatItalywas unprepared for war, opportunistically stating that “I only need a fewthousand dead so that I can sit at the peace conference as a man who hasfought”.  Italy’s contribution to thecampaign would be inconsequential, as the 450,000 invading Italian troops(outnumbering the 190,000 French defenders by over 2:1) were unable to breakthrough the Alpine Line in the rough, high-altitude terrain and prevailingwinter-like snowy weather at the 300-mile long French-Italian border.

But with the French defeat and subsequent armistice, Italianforces occupied territory on the French-Italian border, which was expanded inNovember 1942 to the southeast region of Vichy France as well as Corsica.

Italyand Germany In theperiod before World War II, Italy’s ties with Germany prospered. Both shared acommon political ideology.  In theSpanish Civil War (July 1936-April 1939), Italyand Germany supported therebel Nationalist forces of General Francisco Franco, who emerged victoriousand took over power in Spain.  In October 1936, Italyand Germanyformed an alliance called the Rome-Berlin Axis. In 1937, Italy joinedthe Anti-Comintern Pact, which had been signed by Germanyand Japanin November 1936.  In May 1939, Mussoliniand Hitler formed a military alliance, the Pact of Steel.  The alliance between Germany and Italy,together with Japan,reached its height in September 1940, with the signing of the Tripartite Pact,and these countries came to be known as the Axis Powers.

However, on September 1, 1939 World War II broke out when Germany attacked Poland. Italydid not enter the war as yet, since despite Mussolini’s frequent blustering ofhaving military strength capable of taking on the other great powers, Italyin fact was unprepared for a major European war.

June 20, 1944 – World War II: The Soviet Union demands unconditional surrender from Finland

On June 10, 1944, the Soviet Union launched theVyborg-Petrozavodsk Offensive against Finland. At the height of theSoviet offensive, the Finnish government asked for negotiations. On June 20,the Soviets called for surrender, which Finland deemed as an unconditionalsurrender, which it then rejected.

(Taken from Soviet Counter-attack and Defeat of Germany – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Europe – Vol. 6)

Finland and Germany InJune 1941, Finland had joined Germany in attacking the Soviet Union (albeit notas a member of the Axis) with the aim of regaining lost territory in the WinterWar (separate article), and perhaps asecondary motive to gain a little more territory in support of “Greater Finland”.  With these objectives, the Finnish Army madeno attempt to attack Leningradfrom the north, and rejected the urging by the Germans who were positioned westand south of the city.

For Stalin, however, Finland was a German ally, and shared Hitler’splan to destroy the Soviet Union.  By spring 1944, the Finnish Army at Kareliawas isolated and in a precarious situation after the Red Army drove back theGermans from Leningradinto the Estonian border.  The Soviet HighCommand then made preparations to knock Finland out of the war, which wouldalso improve the strategic position of the Red Army as it continued its driveto the west.

In June 1944, the SovietLeningrad and Karelian Fronts, with a combined 550,000 troops, 10,500 artillerypieces, 800 tanks, and 1,600 planes, attacked the Finnish Army (which wasoutnumbered 2:1 in personnel, 5:1 in artillery, 8:1 in tanks, and 6:1 inplanes) in the Karelian Isthmus and eastern Karelia.  The Soviets broke through the Finns’ firsttwo defense lines, taking eastern Karelia and Viipuri (Vyborg), and by July 1944, had pushed backthe Finns 60 miles (100 km) to the third line (VKT Line).  There, the Red Army advance was stopped, withthe Finns greatly benefiting from the recently delivered German anti-tank weaponsthat halted the Soviet armored spearheads.

In late August 1944, Finlandfeared that its forces could not withstand another major Soviet offensive, andsued for peace.  The Soviets accepted,and on September 4, a ceasefire came into effect.  Two weeks later, an armistice was signed,where the Soviets imposed harsh conditions which the Finnish governmentreluctantly accepted, including that Finland pay war reparation, cedeterritory, lease territory for a Soviet naval base, and force the Germans fromFinnish territory.  Regarding the laststipulation, the Finns did turn against the Germans, who were still occupyingnorthern Finland.

Belorussia[1] During the Soviet counteroffensives of 1943, German Army Group Centerhad generally denied the Red Army any significant breakthroughs, although theSoviets did recapture Bryansk in August 1943 andSmolensk thenext month.  For Stalin, Smolenskwas crucial, as it commanded the main road to Moscow, which the Germans could again use toattack the Soviet capital (but which by now was unlikely).  The Red Army used two Fronts comprising 1.2million troops, 20,600 artillery pieces, 1,400 tanks, and 1,100 planes to expelGerman Army Group Center (with 850,000 troops, 9,000 artillery pieces, 500tanks, and 700 planes) from Smolensk and surrounding territory, advancing up to160 miles (260 km) to the west.  Even so,the Soviets failed to break through German lines east of the upper Dnieper River.

However, by summer 1944, German Army Group Center’ssituation was precarious and its flanks vulnerable, especially in the southbecause of the Red Army’s rapid recapture of most of Ukraine.  By then, German Army Group South held only asmall section in northwest Ukraine.

Hitler surmised that the nextmajor Soviet offensive would be made through northwest Ukraine, as this gave the Soviets the shortestroute to Berlin.  But unbeknown to Hitler, Stalin and theSoviet High Command had focused their 1944 summer offensive mainly atrecapturing Belarus.  Here, the Soviets utilized “maskirovka” (militarydeception) to a very high degree, including deploying large formations in thesouth while simultaneously building up forces in the central sector.  These deceptions were highly successful, asHitler became so convinced that the main Soviet attack would be in Ukraine that he stripped German Army Group Centerof weapons in favor of German Army Group South – some 30% of the artillerypieces, 50% of tank destroyers, and nearly 90% of tanks were moved.  By the time of the Soviet attack, German Army Group Centerarmor would be outnumbered by a 12: 1 ratio.

By June 1944, the Red Armyhad massed four Army Groups (1st, 2nd, and 4th,Belorussian Fronts, and 1st Baltic Front) for the recapture of Belorussia.  The offensive was codenamed OperationBagration[2]and had a combined force of 2 million troops, 5,800 tanks, 33,000 artillerypieces, and 7,800 planes.  Opposing thisforce was German Army Group Center, with 600,000 troops, 500 tanks, 2,600artillery pieces, and 600 planes – with reinforcements later arriving, thesenumbers would rise to 1 million troops, 1,300 tanks, 10,000 artillery pieces,and 1,200 planes.

On June 22, 1944, Soviet forcesattacked, and broke through the German lines all across the front, encirclingGerman units in several areas, including Minsk,the Belorussian capital, where 100,000 German troops were trapped, of which60,000 were captured and 40,000 killed. The German difficulties were further compounded because Hitler forbadeany retreat, and ordered that all positions be held at all costs, and turnedinto “fortresses” even if they fell behind enemy lines.  By mid-July 1944, the Red Army had seized allof Belarus,pushing back the Germans 450 miles to the 1941 border.  More critically, the Soviets established bridgeheadsacross the Vistula River leading to the outskirts of Warsaw, Poland’scapital. This Soviet victory was emphatic, thorough, and complete, and itsstrategic implications were wide-ranging: the German frontlines in the EasternFront from north to south were broken permanently; the German Army Groups lostphysical connections with each other; German Army Group North faced the dangerof being cut off in the Baltic region; and the regions comprisingGerman-controlled Poland, East Prussia, and even Germany itself, were nowthreatened.  The Red Army suffered heavylosses: 770,000 troops (180,000 killed or missing, 340,000-590,000 wounded andsick), 2,900 tanks, 2,500 artillery pieces, and 800 planes.  German manpower losses totaled 400,000 troops(26,000 killed, 110,000 wounded, and 264,000 missing and captured).  However, Red Army formations could easily berestored to full strength, because of the Soviet Union’snumerical superiority and industrial capacity, while German material losseswere becoming difficult to replace because of increasing difficulty inprocuring raw materials.

In support of OperationBagration, in mid-July 1944, Soviet 1st Ukrainian Front launched theLvov-Sandomierz Offensive in the south, whichcaptured Lvov and the whole northwest Ukraine, and thrust to the VistulaRiver at Sandomierz, establishing abridgehead and threatening to advance to Warsawfrom the southeast.  The Wehrmacht thuslost all its territories in the Ukraine.

Baltic StatesWith its capture of Belarus,the Red Army was poised to recapture the Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia,and Lithuania.  The Soviet position in the Baltic region wasgreatly enhanced during the course of Operation Bagration, when in July 1944,the 1st Baltic Front, holding the northern flank, recaptured much ofLithuania and then reached the Gulf of Riga on the Baltic Coast.  This feat effectively cut off German ArmyGroup North in Estonia and Latvia.

In September 1944, threeSoviet Army Groups (1st, 2nd, and 3rd BalticFronts) opened the Baltic Offensive: Tartu and southeast Estonia were retaken, and another Soviet advancereached Riga, Latvia’s capital. German forces,which still held much of Latviaand Estonia,including the region west of Narva, faced the danger of being outflanked andcut off.  In September 1944, in OperationAster carried out by the German Navy, German Army Group North was evacuatedfrom Estonia and Latvia, and landed in the CourlandPeninsula south of Riga. Here, the German force, which Hitler soon renamed Army Group Courland,resisted successive Red Army offensives until the end of World War II in Europe.  It wouldonly be on May 9, 1945, one day after Germany’s unconditional surrenderto the Allies, that the 200,000 German troops in the “Courland Pocket” surrendered to the Red Army.

[1] Modern-day Belarus.

[2] Named after Russian General Pyotr Bagration, who fought againstNapoleon’s invasion of Russiain 1812.  The operation on Belaruswas conceived during Allied talks in the Teheran Conference (November-December1943), by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister WinstonChurchill, and Stalin.  The “Big Three”Allied Powers agreed to launch a coordinated simultaneous attack from west andeast of Germany, which wasrealized with Operation Overlord, the Anglo-American amphibious landings in Normandy, Franceon June 6, 1944, and Operation Bagration two weeks later.

June 19, 1965 – Vietnam War: A new government is formed in South Vietnam

On June 19, 1965, Air Marshall Nguyen Cao Ky became PrimeMinister of South Vietnam as head of a military junta, while General Nguyen VanThieu became the figurehead chief of state. This arose following two years ofintense political instability where South Vietnam experienced a seriesof leadership changes following a military-backed coup and assassination ofPresident Ngo Dinh Diem in November 1963. Diem served as Prime Minister in1954-1955 and then as President from 1955 until his death in 1963. A junta wasset up to govern the country, but was racked by power struggles that led to aseries of short-lived military governments.

With the formation of Ky-Thieu junta in June 1965, South Vietnam’spolitical climate normalized to some extent.

(Taken from Vietnam War – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Asia – Vol. 5)

In relation to theVietnam War In May 1965, in a major effort to overthrow South Vietnam, Viet Cong and North Vietnameseforces launched attacks in three major areas: just south of the DMZ, in theCentral Highlands, and in areas around Saigon.  U.S.and South Vietnamese forces repulsed these attacks, with massive U.S. air firepower being particularly effective,and in mid-1965, Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces retreated, and thedanger to the Saigon government passed.  By that time also, U.S. President Lyndon B.Johnson agreed to the U.S.military’s request and sent more troops to Vietnam, raising the total to184,000 by the end of 1965.  Morecrucially, he authorized U.S.forces to not merely defend U.S.facilities, but to undertake offensive combat missions, in line with Americanmilitary doctrine to take the war to the enemy.

Meanwhile in June 1965, South Vietnam’s political climateeased considerably with the appointment of Nguyen Cao Ky as Prime Minister andNguyen Van Thieu as (figurehead) Chief of State.  The new South Vietnamese regime imposedcensorship and restrictions on civil liberties because of the unstable securitysituation, as well as to curb widespread local civilian unrest.  In 1966, Prime Minister Kyquelled a Buddhist uprising and brought some stability to the South Vietnamesemilitary.  Ky and Thieu were politicalrivals, and after Thieu was elected president in the 1967 presidentialelection, a power struggle developed between the two leaders, with PresidentThieu ultimately emerging victorious.  Bythe late 1960s, Thieu had consolidated power and thereafter ruled with nearautocratic powers.

June 18, 1900 – Boxer Rebellion: Empress Dowager Cixi of China orders her people to resist foreigners, which leads to war against the Western Powers and Japan

The Boxer RebellionIn the late 19th century, a secret society called the ““Righteous andHarmonious Fists” (Yihequan) was formed in the drought-ravaged hinterlandregions of Shandongand Zhili provinces.  The sect formed inthe villages, had no central leadership, operated in groups of tens to severalhundreds of mostly young peasants, and held the belief that China’s problemswere a direct consequence of the presence of foreigners, who had brought intothe country their alien culture and religion (i.e. Christianity).

Sect members practiced martial arts and gymnastics, andperformed mass religious rituals, where they invoked Taoist and Buddhistspirits to take possession of their bodies. They also believed that these rituals would confer on them invincibilityto weapons strikes, including bullets. As the sect was anti-foreign and anti-Christian, it soon gained theattention of foreign Christian missionaries, who called the group and its followers“Boxers” in reference to the group’s name and because it practiced martialarts.

The Qing government, long wary of secret societies whichhistorically had seditious motives, made efforts to suppress the Boxers.Because of government suppression, the Boxers had renamed their organization asthe  “Righteous and Harmonious Militia(Yihetuan)”, using the word “militia” to de-emphasize their origin as a secretsociety and give the movement a form of legitimacy.  Even then, the Qing government continued toview the Boxers with suspicion.

(Taken from Boxer Rebellion – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Asia – Vol. 5)

By May 1900, thousands of Boxers were occupying areas aroundBeijing,including the vital Beijing-Tianjin railway line.  They attacked villages, killed localofficials, and destroyed government infrastructures.  The violence alarmed the foreign diplomaticcommunity in Beijing.  The foreign diplomats, their staff, andfamilies in Beijinghad their offices and residences located at the Legation Quarter, located southof the city.  The Legation Quarterconsisted of diplomatic missions from eleven countries: Britain, France,Russia, United States, Germany,Austria-Hungary, Japan, Italy,Belgium, Netherlands, and Spain.

In May 1900, the foreign diplomats asked the Qing governmentthat foreign troops be allowed to be posted at the Legation Quarter, which wasdenied.  Instead, the Chinese governmentsent Chinese policemen to guard the legations. But the foreign envoys persisted in their request, and on May 30, 1900,the Chinese Foreign Ministry (Zongli Yamen) allowed a small number of foreigntroops to be sent to Beijing.

The next day (May 31), some 450 foreign sailors and Marineswere landed from ships from eight countries and sent by train from Taku to Beijing.  But as the situation in Beijingcontinued to deteriorate, the foreign diplomats felt that more foreign troopswere needed in Beijing.  On June 6, 1900, and again on June 8, theysent requests to the Zongli Yamen, with both being turned down.  A separate request by the German Minister,Clemens von Ketteler, to allow German troops to take control of the Beijing railway stationalso was turned down.  On June 10, 1900,the Chinese government barred the foreign legations from using the telegraphline that linked to Tianjin.  In one of the last transmissions from theLegation Quarter, British Minister Claude MacDonald asked British Vice-AdmiralEdward Seymour in Tianjin to send more troops,with the message, “Situation extremely grave; unless arrangements are made forimmediate advance to Beijing,it will be too late.”  And with thesubsequent severing of the telegraph line between Beijingand Kiachta (in Russia) onJune 17, 1900, for nearly two months thereafter, the Legation Quarter in Beijing would be cut offfrom the outside world.

On June 11, 1900, the Japanese diplomat, Sugiyama Akira, waskilled by Chinese troops in a Beijingstreet.  Then on June 12 or 13, twoBoxers entered the Legation Quarter and were confronted by Ketteler, the GermanMinister, who drove one away and captured the other; the latter soon was killedunder unclear circumstances.  Later thatday, thousands of Boxers stormed into Beijing and went on a rampage, killingChinese Christians, burning churches, destroying houses, and lootingproperties.  In the next few days,skirmishes broke out between foreign legation troops, and Boxers with thesupport of anti-foreigner government units. On June 15, 1900, British and German soldiers dispersed Boxers whoattacked a church, and rescued the trapped Christians inside; two days later(June 17), an armed clash broke out between German–British–Austro-Hungarianunits and Boxer–anti-foreigner government troops.

The Belgian legation was evacuated, as were those of Austria-Hungary, the Netherlands,and Italy,when they came under Boxer attack.  Bythis time, the Christian missions scattered across Beijing were evacuated, with their clergy andthousands of Chinese Christians taking shelter at the Legation Quarter.  Soon, the Legation Quarter was fortified,with soldiers and civilians building barricades, trenches, bunkers, andshelters in preparation for a Boxer attack. Ultimately, in the Legation Quarter were some 400 soldiers, 470civilians (including 149 women and 79 children), and 2,800 Chinese Christians,all of whom would be besieged in the fighting that followed.  At the Northern Cathedral (Beitang) locatedsome three miles from the Legation Quarter, some 40 French and Italiansoldiers, 30 foreign Catholic clergy, and 3,200 Chinese Christians also tookrefuge, turning the area into a defensive fortification which also would comeunder siege during the conflict.

Meanwhile in Taku, in response to British MinisterMacDonald’s plea for more troops to be sent to the Beijing foreign legations,on June 10, Vice-Admiral Seymour scrambled a 2,200-strong multinational forceof Navy and Marine units from Britain, Germany, Russia, France, the UnitedStates, Japan, Italy, and Austria-Hungary, which departed by train from Tianjinto Beijing.  On the first day, Seymour’s force traveled to within 40 miles of Beijing without meeting opposition, despite the presenceof Chinese Imperial forces (which had received no orders to resist Seymour’s passage) alongthe way.  Seymour’s force reached Langfang, where therail tracks had been destroyed by Boxers. Seymour’stroops dispersed the Boxers guarding the area, and work crews started repairwork on the rail tracks.  Seymour sent out ascouting team further on, which returned saying that more sections of therailroad at An Ting had also been destroyed. Seymour then sent a train back to Tianjin to get moresupplies, but the train soon returned, its crew saying that the rail track atYangcun was now destroyed.  Having tofight off a number of Boxer attacks, his provisions running low, realizing thefutility of continuing to Beijing, and nowfeeling trapped on both sides, Seymour called off the expedition and turned thetrains back, intending to return to Tianjin.

Elsewhere at this point, the Boxer crisis deteriorated evenfurther.  On June 15, 1900, at the YellowSea where Alliance ships were on high alert, andwere awaiting further developments, allied naval commanders became alarmed whenQing forces began fortifying the Taku Forts at the mouth of the Peiho River,as well as setting mines on the river and torpedo tubes at the forts.  For Alliancecommanders, these actions threatened to cut off allied communication and supplylines to Tianjin, threatening the foreignenclave at Tianjin and Legation Quarter at Beijing, as well as Seymour’sforce.  The foreign alliance had had nocommunication with the Seymourforce for several days.  Alliance commanders thenissued an ultimatum demanding that the Taku Forts be surrendered to them, whichthe Qing naval command rejected.  Earlyon June 17, 1900, fighting broke out at the Taku Forts, with Allianceforces (except the U.S.command, which chose not to participate) launching a naval and ground assaultthat seized control of the forts.

War For theChinese government, the Allied attack on the Taku Forts constituted an act ofwar.  The Qing then turned its positioninvariably on the side of the Boxers.  Upto this point, the Qing court was unsure about its position regarding theBoxers, and Empress Dowager Cixi vacillated between the two opposing factionsin her court: the ultra-conservatives who were pro-Boxer, and the reformistswho were pro-foreigner.  The dilemmafaced by the Qing government was that despite the Boxers’ professed loyalty tothe monarchy, they still could pose a threat to the monarchy, as all secretsocieties in the past had.  But if indeedthe Boxers were loyal, the Qing court could use their hatred of foreigners torid Chinaof foreign influences.  After the alliedaction on the Taku Forts, Empress Dowager Cixi took a firm stand in support ofthe Boxers, and ordered her armies to resist the foreigners.

On June 18, 1900, one day after the attack on the TakuForts, German soldiers at Langfang were attacked by the anti-foreign ChineseRear Army, more commonly known as “Gansu Braves”, which was composed of ChineseMuslims.  This attack by Chinese regulartroops further convinced Seymour to call off hisadvance to Beijing (Seymour had launched his expedition on thebelief that he would face only Boxers). Then finding that more sections of therail tracks had been destroyed at Yangcun, Seymour’sforce abandoned the trains there and proceeded to move by foot toward Tianjin.  At the Peiho River,they seized a number of Chinese river junks, which they used to carry theirwounded men, supplies, and heavy weapons. In the next several days, Seymour and his men faced numerous Boxerattacks, and also soon became low on food and ammunitions.  On June 23, they fortuitously came upon the weaklydefended Xigu fort located six miles from Tianjin,which they seized and then took refuge in. Subsequently, they were rescued on June 25, 1900 by an Alliancerelief force sent from Tianjin.

Meanwhile in Beijing,the situation facing the foreigners and Chinese Christians in the LegationQuarter worsened.  On June 19, 1900, theQing government ordered the foreigners to leave Beijing within 24 hours under the protectionof Chinese troops.  Most of the foreignenvoys were ready to comply, but they requested an audience with the ZongliYamen for 9 AM the next day (June 20). When the proposed appointment passed with no reply from the Chinese, theGerman Minister Ketteler, who had opposed the Chinese ultimatum to leave Beijing, decided to go tothe Zongli Yamen to confront the Chinese officials.  Ketteler ignored the warnings of the otherforeign envoys not to do so.  On his waythere, Ketteler was shot and killed by a Chinese officer.  The other foreign envoys then convened anddecided to defy the Qing ultimatum and remain at the Legation Quarter.  They now distrusted the Qing government, andbelieved that their lives would be in danger if they left the Legation Quarter.

The next day, June 21, 1900, the Qing court issued a seriesof decrees which the foreign powers saw as a declaration of war againstthem.  In particular, the foreign powerswere rankled by certain hostile statements in the Qing decrees, including thelines, “We should fight this war in a big way… In province adjacent to Pekingand Shandong,hundreds of thousands of Boxers have gathered on [their] free will, even…boys wouldtake up weapons to safeguard the homeland. …it is not difficult to put out theforeigners’ fierce fire, to showcase the might of our nation. The royal courtwill generously reward those who fight bravely on the front line, [and] willalso reward those who donate money in preparation of the war. The royal courtwill immediately execute traitors who escape from the battlefield or anyone whocollaborates with the enemy”

As a result, a state of war existed, as Qing and Boxerforces laid siege to the Legation Quarter.

June 17, 1900 – Boxer Rebellion: Taku Forts in Tianjin, China fall to Western Allied and Japanese forces

On June 15, 1900, at the Yellow Sea where Alliance(Western Powers and Japan)ships were on high alert, and were awaiting further developments, allied navalcommanders became alarmed when Qing forces began fortifying the Taku Forts atthe mouth of the Peiho River, as well as settingmines on the river and torpedo tubes at the forts.  For Alliancecommanders, these actions threatened to cut off allied communication and supplylines to Tianjin, threatening the foreignenclave at Tianjin and Legation Quarter at Beijing, as well as Seymour’sforce.  The foreign alliance had had nocommunication with the Seymourforce for several days.  Alliance commanders thenissued an ultimatum demanding that the Taku Forts be surrendered to them, whichthe Qing naval command rejected.  Earlyon June 17, 1900, fighting broke out at the Taku Forts, with Allianceforces (except the U.S.command, which chose not to participate) launching a naval and ground assaultthat seized control of the forts.

(Taken from Boxer Rebellion – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Asia – Vol. 5)

Background By May1900, thousands of Boxers (members of the secret society, Righteous andHarmonious Fists”) were occupying areas around Beijing, including the vital Beijing-Tianjinrailway line.  They attacked villages,killed local officials, and destroyed government infrastructures.  The violence alarmed the foreign diplomaticcommunity in Beijing.  The foreign diplomats, their staff, andfamilies in Beijinghad their offices and residences located at the Legation Quarter, located southof the city.  The Legation Quarterconsisted of diplomatic missions from eleven countries: Britain, France,Russia, United States, Germany,Austria-Hungary, Japan, Italy,Belgium, Netherlands, and Spain.

In May 1900, the foreign diplomats asked the Qing governmentthat foreign troops be allowed to be posted at the Legation Quarter, which wasdenied.  Instead, the Chinese governmentsent Chinese policemen to guard the legations. But the foreign envoys persisted in their request, and on May 30, 1900,the Chinese Foreign Ministry (Zongli Yamen) allowed a small number of foreigntroops to be sent to Beijing.

The next day (May 31), some 450 foreign sailors and Marineswere landed from ships from eight countries and sent by train from Taku to Beijing.  But as the situation in Beijingcontinued to deteriorate, the foreign diplomats felt that more foreign troopswere needed in Beijing.  On June 6, 1900, and again on June 8, theysent requests to the Zongli Yamen, with both being turned down.  A separate request by the German Minister,Clemens von Ketteler, to allow German troops to take control of the Beijing railway stationalso was turned down.  On June 10, 1900,the Chinese government barred the foreign legations from using the telegraphline that linked to Tianjin.  In one of the last transmissions from theLegation Quarter, British Minister Claude MacDonald asked British Vice-AdmiralEdward Seymour in Tianjin to send more troops,with the message, “Situation extremely grave; unless arrangements are made forimmediate advance to Beijing,it will be too late.”  And with thesubsequent severing of the telegraph line between Beijingand Kiachta (in Russia) onJune 17, 1900, for nearly two months thereafter, the Legation Quarter in Beijing would be cut offfrom the outside world.

On June 11, 1900, the Japanese diplomat, Sugiyama Akira, waskilled by Chinese troops in a Beijingstreet.  Then on June 12 or 13, twoBoxers entered the Legation Quarter and were confronted by Ketteler, the GermanMinister, who drove one away and captured the other; the latter soon was killedunder unclear circumstances.  Later thatday, thousands of Boxers stormed into Beijing and went on a rampage, killingChinese Christians, burning churches, destroying houses, and lootingproperties.  In the next few days,skirmishes broke out between foreign legation troops, and Boxers with thesupport of anti-foreigner government units. On June 15, 1900, British and German soldiers dispersed Boxers whoattacked a church, and rescued the trapped Christians inside; two days later(June 17), an armed clash broke out between German–British–Austro-Hungarian unitsand Boxer–anti-foreigner government troops.

The Belgian legation was evacuated, as were those of Austria-Hungary, the Netherlands,and Italy,when they came under Boxer attack.  Bythis time, the Christian missions scattered across Beijing were evacuated, with their clergy andthousands of Chinese Christians taking shelter at the Legation Quarter.  Soon, the Legation Quarter was fortified,with soldiers and civilians building barricades, trenches, bunkers, and sheltersin preparation for a Boxer attack.  Ultimately, in the Legation Quarter were some400 soldiers, 470 civilians (including 149 women and 79 children), and 2,800Chinese Christians, all of whom would be besieged in the fighting thatfollowed.  At the Northern Cathedral(Beitang) located some three miles from the Legation Quarter, some 40 Frenchand Italian soldiers, 30 foreign Catholic clergy, and 3,200 Chinese Christiansalso took refuge, turning the area into a defensive fortification which alsowould come under siege during the conflict.

Meanwhile in Taku, in response to British MinisterMacDonald’s plea for more troops to be sent to the Beijing foreign legations,on June 10, Vice-Admiral Seymour scrambled a 2,200-strong multinational forceof Navy and Marine units from Britain, Germany, Russia, France, the UnitedStates, Japan, Italy, and Austria-Hungary, which departed by train from Tianjinto Beijing.  On the first day, Seymour’s force traveled to within 40 miles of Beijing without meeting opposition, despite the presenceof Chinese Imperial forces (which had received no orders to resist Seymour’s passage) alongthe way.  Seymour’s force reached Langfang, where therail tracks had been destroyed by Boxers. Seymour’stroops dispersed the Boxers guarding the area, and work crews started repairwork on the rail tracks.  Seymour sent out ascouting team further on, which returned saying that more sections of therailroad at An Ting had also been destroyed. Seymour then sent a train back to Tianjin to get moresupplies, but the train soon returned, its crew saying that the rail track atYangcun was now destroyed.  Having tofight off a number of Boxer attacks, his provisions running low, realizing thefutility of continuing to Beijing, and nowfeeling trapped on both sides, Seymour called off the expedition and turned thetrains back, intending to return to Tianjin.

Aftermath For theChinese government, the Allied attack on the Taku Forts constituted an act ofwar.  The Qing then turned its positioninvariably on the side of the Boxers.  Upto this point, the Qing court was unsure about its position regarding theBoxers, and Empress Dowager Cixi vacillated between the two opposing factionsin her court: the ultra-conservatives who were pro-Boxer, and the reformistswho were pro-foreigner.  The dilemmafaced by the Qing government was that despite the Boxers’ professed loyalty tothe monarchy, they still could pose a threat to the monarchy, as all secretsocieties in the past had.  But if indeedthe Boxers were loyal, the Qing court could use their hatred of foreigners torid Chinaof foreign influences.  After the alliedaction on the Taku Forts, Empress Dowager Cixi took a firm stand in support ofthe Boxers, and ordered her armies to resist the foreigners.