MaryAnn Bernal's Blog, page 119
February 14, 2016
History Trivia - Thomas Cranmer declared a heretic
February 14
1556 Thomas Cranmer, leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI, was declared a heretic when staunch Catholic Mary I became Queen.
1556 Thomas Cranmer, leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI, was declared a heretic when staunch Catholic Mary I became Queen.
February 13, 2016
Robert Dudley: Queen Elizabeth I's great love
History Extra
Robert Dudley, 1560s. (Photo by Fine Art Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images); Elizabeth I in coronation robes. (Photo by Universal History Archive/Getty Images)
Elizabeth I is remembered in history as the Virgin Queen. She was the daughter of Henry VIII by his second wife Anne Boleyn and in stark contrast to her much-married father, she famously declared: “I will have but one mistress here, and no master.” During the course of her long reign, she was besieged by many suitors but gave each one nothing more than “fair words but no promises”. Yet it is generally accepted that there was one man who, more than any other, tempted Elizabeth to relinquish her single state. Robert Dudley (1532/33–88), was the fifth son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland. The duke had wrested power during the minority of Edward VI (who became king aged nine on Henry VIII’s death), but was executed for putting his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne after the young king’s death in 1553. His son Robert led troops in support of the coup, but was swiftly defeated by Queen Mary I and was thrown into the Tower of London. Robert Dudley’s sojourn in the Tower coincided with that of the new queen’s half-sister, Elizabeth (who Mary suspected of plotting against her). They had been friends since childhood, Dudley having been among her brother Edward’s companions. Close in age, Elizabeth and Dudley had shared the same tutor, Roger Ascham, who had been greatly impressed by his precocious young pupils.
As a young girl Princess Elizabeth, shown aged about 13, shared a tutor with Robert Dudley. (GL Archive/ Alamy Stock Photo) It was in Dudley that the eight-year-old Elizabeth had confided upon the execution of her third stepmother, Catherine Howard, in 1541, vowing: “I will never marry.” He would always remember the conversation, and it may have been the reason he decided to marry Amy Robsart nine years later. During the years that followed, Robert kept his wife away from court – mindful, perhaps, that it might damage his relationship with Elizabeth. The years of uncertainty during Mary Tudor’s reign (1553–58), when Elizabeth lived in constant fear for her life, brought her ever closer to Dudley. He remained loyal to her throughout, even when it risked his own safety. They spent many hours together and had a great deal in common, sharing a love of hunting, dancing and lively conversation. This sparked endless gossip among the princess’s household, particularly given that Dudley was a married man. His loyalty was rewarded when Elizabeth became queen in 1558, at the age of 25. She immediately appointed Dudley to be her Master of Horse, a prestigious position that involved regular attendance upon his royal mistress. But it was no longer easy for the couple to meet in private. As queen, Elizabeth’s every move was scrutinised not just by her people, but by the whole of Europe. “A thousand eyes see all I do,” she once complained. Nevertheless, Elizabeth made it clear that she had no intention of giving up her favourite. If anything, she found ways to spend even more time with him. A year after her accession, she had Dudley’s bedchamber moved next to her private rooms in order to facilitate their clandestine meetings. Before long, their relationship was causing a scandal not just in England, but in courts across Europe. The obvious intimacy between them provoked endless speculation about just how close their relationship was. Elizabeth’s chief rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, was in no doubt that Elizabeth and Dudley were lovers, and later told the noblewoman Bess of Hardwick that he had visited the queen’s bed numerous times. It is unlikely that Elizabeth, who had seen so many powerful examples of the perils of sex and childbirth, would have risked the throne she had fought so hard for by sleeping with her favourite. But their friendship probably charted a careful course between platonic and sexual. The rumours flared up again in 1587, when a young man going by the name of Arthur Dudley arrived at Philip II’s court in Madrid, Spain, claiming to be the illegitimate child of the English queen and her favourite, Robert Dudley. His age placed his conception at 1561, which coincided with Elizabeth being bedridden with a mysterious illness that caused her body to swell. The account therefore had an air of credibility, made more so by the fact that Arthur was able to name a servant who had allegedly spirited him away from the royal palace of Hampton Court (near London) as soon as he was born and raised him as his own, only confessing the truth on his deathbed in 1583. There is no firm evidence to corroborate the story, but it suited King Philip’s interests to discredit the English queen. Ironically, the death of Dudley’s wife in 1560, at her residence Cumnor Place, removed any hope that Elizabeth may have privately cherished of one day marrying him. The circumstances were suspicious. Amy insisted that all her servants attend a local fair. When they returned, they found her at the bottom of a short flight of stairs, her neck broken. Whether it was an accident, suicide or murder has never been resolved beyond doubt. The finger of suspicion pointed at Dudley, whom his enemies claimed would not have flinched from having his own wife put to death so that he could realise his ambitions of marrying the queen. Mary, Queen of Scots quipped that the queen of England was about to marry her “horsekeeper” who had killed his wife in order to make way for her. Elizabeth was also in the frame: many believed that her passion for Dudley had driven her to have his wife murdered so that she could have him at last. Yet it is extremely unlikely that Dudley or Elizabeth had any hand in Amy’s death. They would hardly have taken such a risk, especially as they would have known that it would prove counterproductive to any plans they may have had to marry. The scandal reverberated not just around the kingdom but across the courts of Europe, so that Elizabeth was obliged to distance herself from Dudley in order to avoid being implicated any further. 
The death of Amy Robsart in 1560. Dudley came under suspicion when his wife was found dead at the bottom of their stairs. In the ensuing scandal, the queen had to distance herself from him, in public at least. (Nottingham Castle/Bridgeman Images) But in private, the queen refused to give up her favourite. Now that the scrutiny of the court was even more intense, she was obliged to go to even greater lengths to conceal their meetings. In November 1561, for example, she disguised herself as the maid of Katherine Howard (later Countess of Nottingham) in order to enjoy the secret pleasure of watching Dudley shoot near Windsor Castle. Another attempt at discretion was less successful. When her close friend and attendant Lady Fiennes de Clinton helped Elizabeth escape court in disguise to meet Dudley at his house for dinner, Philip II of Spain’s envoy heard of it and immediately reported it to his master. In the letters that Queen Elizabeth and Dudley exchanged, they used the symbol ‘ôô’ as code for the nickname of ‘Eyes’ that she had given him. Elizabeth kept her favourite’s letters, along with his portrait, in a locked desk next to her bed. On a visit to court in 1564, the Scottish ambassador Sir James Melville spied the portrait as Elizabeth was searching for one of his own royal mistress. When he asked if he could borrow it to show the Scottish queen, Elizabeth immediately refused, “alleging that she had but that one picture of his”. Spying Robert Dudley in a corner of the bedchamber, Melville slyly observed that she should not cling so to the portrait, since “she had the original.” As her reign progressed and the pressure to marry grew ever more intense, Elizabeth pretended to consider numerous potential suitors. But she would never commit to any of them. The Venetian ambassador shrewdly observed: “She has many suitors for her hand, and by protracting any decision keeps them all in hope.” Meanwhile, now that the scandal of his wife’s death had faded, Robert Dudley stepped up his campaign to make Queen Elizabeth his wife. He besieged her with protestations of his undying affection, all of which his royal mistress received with obvious pleasure but with no firm promises. By 1575, Dudley was growing desperate and decided to make one last, spectacular attempt to persuade Elizabeth to marry him. Pulling out all the stops, he invited her to his Warwickshire estate, Kenilworth Castle, and staged several days of extraordinarily lavish entertainments at a huge cost. The queen loved every minute of her visit there, but would not be dazzled into acquiescence. Genuine though her affection for Robert was, she knew that marrying him would court disaster in her kingdom, sparking such intense opposition from Dudley’s rivals that it might even spill out into civil war. For all his desperation to marry the queen, Dudley had been secretly courting one of her ladies-in-waiting, Lettice Knollys. Described as being one of the best-looking women of the court, she was of royal blood, being the great-niece of Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn. This no doubt added to her attraction for Dudley, who had enjoyed a flirtation with Lettice for the previous 10 years. Now that his last-ditch attempt to persuade Elizabeth to marry him had failed, he took Lettice as his mistress. For a time, Elizabeth was blissfully unaware that her favourite was betraying her. But three years into the affair, Lettice became pregnant. She was not a woman to be set aside and insisted that Dudley marry her. Fearing the inevitable backlash from his royal mistress, he agreed only to a secret ceremony, which took place in 1578. The bride was said to have worn “a loose gown” – a coded reference to her pregnant state. It was not long before the secret leaked out at court. When Elizabeth learned that her cousin had stolen the only man she had truly loved, she flew into a jealous rage, boxing Lettice’s ears and screaming that “as but one sun lightened the earth, she would have but one queen in England”. She then banished this “flouting wench” from her presence, vowing never to set eyes on her again. Although she eventually forgave Dudley, their relationship had lost the intimacy that had defined it for so many years. But towards the end of Dudley’s life, they grew close once more. In 1586, he went to command her forces in the Netherlands. Missing him, she wrote an affectionate letter, which she signed: “As you know, ever the same. ER.” “Ever the same” or “semper eadem” was her motto, but she and Dudley knew how much more it signified in their relationship. The following year, the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots at Elizabeth’s orders threw her into turmoil and it was to her old favourite that she turned for comfort. Dudley was also by Elizabeth’s side through the Armada crisis of 1588 (the Spanish navy’s failed attempt to invade England, thwarted by the English fleet). By now he was gravely ill but did not hesitate to accept the post of ‘Lieutenant and Captain-General of the Queen’s Armies and Companies’. He walked beside her horse as his royal mistress delivered her famous speech at Tilbury on 8 August 1588, while inspecting the troops that had been assembled to defend the Thames Estuary against any incursion up-river towards London: “I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king and of a king of England too.” He stayed with the queen in the immediate aftermath of the Armada, wishing to be certain that the danger had passed. One of the last recorded sightings of the pair together was at a palace window, watching a celebratory parade staged by his stepson, the Earl of Essex. By now in poor health, Dudley took his leave of Elizabeth. He, at least, must have known that it would be for the last time. A few days later, he wrote to Elizabeth from Rycote in Oxfordshire, ending the letter: “I humbly kiss your foot… by Your Majesty’s most faithful and obedient servant.” These were probably the last words ever written by Robert Dudley. Five days later, on 4 September 1588, he breathed his last. Elizabeth was inconsolable at the loss of “sweet Robin”, the only man whom she had ever truly loved. Their relationship had survived almost 50 years of trials and tribulations, and Elizabeth was lost without him. In the days immediately after his death, she kept to her room, unable to face her court or council. The brief note that he had sent her from Rycote now became her most treasured possession. She inscribed it “His last letter”, and kept it in a locked casket by her bed for the rest of her life. For years afterwards if anyone mentioned Robert Dudley’s name her eyes filled with tears.
Elizabeth's other men
As well as Dudley, the Virgin Queen had several other contenders for her heart
Eric XIV of Sweden (1533–77)
Realising that marrying a home-grown candidate was fraught with difficulty, Elizabeth’s ministers focused upon suitors from overseas for most of her reign. One of the earliest was King Eric XIV of Sweden, who had started to make overtures towards Elizabeth before she was queen. He continued to pursue her for several years and even made plans to visit her. Horrified, she wrote him a polite but firm letter, telling him to stay away and assuring him: “We have never yet conceived a feeling of that kind of affection towards anyone.”
Philip II of Spain (1527–98)
Even while he had been married to her sister Mary I, Philip II of Spain had made overtures towards Elizabeth, beguiled by her youthful charms. When Mary died, Philip – who had been styled ‘King of England’ for his wife’s lifetime only – was reluctant to give up his English kingdom and so sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. He urged the new queen to consider the advantages of having the protection of Spain. Elizabeth employed what would become her customary tactic of delaying, but eventually told Philip that she could not marry her sister’s widower, and that his Catholicism would not be acceptable to her people. Thenceforth, they were enemies.
François, Duke of Alençon and Anjou (1555–84)
Elizabeth’s last serious suitor was François, the Duke of Alençon and Anjou, and the youngest son of King Henry II of France. He had first been proposed as a husband in 1578, when he was 23 and Elizabeth 45. Despite the considerable age gap, the pair became very close, aided by the fact that the duke was the only one of the queen’s many suitors to court her in person. Calling him her “frog”, Queen Elizabeth showered the young duke with affection, and he gave every appearance of returning her love. But it all came to nothing, and François eventually returned to France in 1581.
Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex (1565–1601)
Robert was the son of Elizabeth’s rival Lettice Knollys with her first husband Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex. He was 30 years younger than Elizabeth but gave every appearance of being passionately in love with her. She was beguiled by his darkly handsome looks and swaggering self-confidence, which made him take greater liberties with the queen than anyone else dared. Painfully aware that age had ravished her looks, she was fiercely possessive of his attentions. But Essex had already proved false. In 1590, he had incurred her wrath by secretly marrying Frances Walsingham, daughter of the secretary of state. He later led a rebellion against Elizabeth’s regime and was executed in 1601. Dr Tracy Borman is joint chief curator of Historic Royal Palaces and an expert on the Tudor period.
Robert Dudley, 1560s. (Photo by Fine Art Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images); Elizabeth I in coronation robes. (Photo by Universal History Archive/Getty Images) Elizabeth I is remembered in history as the Virgin Queen. She was the daughter of Henry VIII by his second wife Anne Boleyn and in stark contrast to her much-married father, she famously declared: “I will have but one mistress here, and no master.” During the course of her long reign, she was besieged by many suitors but gave each one nothing more than “fair words but no promises”. Yet it is generally accepted that there was one man who, more than any other, tempted Elizabeth to relinquish her single state. Robert Dudley (1532/33–88), was the fifth son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland. The duke had wrested power during the minority of Edward VI (who became king aged nine on Henry VIII’s death), but was executed for putting his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne after the young king’s death in 1553. His son Robert led troops in support of the coup, but was swiftly defeated by Queen Mary I and was thrown into the Tower of London. Robert Dudley’s sojourn in the Tower coincided with that of the new queen’s half-sister, Elizabeth (who Mary suspected of plotting against her). They had been friends since childhood, Dudley having been among her brother Edward’s companions. Close in age, Elizabeth and Dudley had shared the same tutor, Roger Ascham, who had been greatly impressed by his precocious young pupils.
As a young girl Princess Elizabeth, shown aged about 13, shared a tutor with Robert Dudley. (GL Archive/ Alamy Stock Photo) It was in Dudley that the eight-year-old Elizabeth had confided upon the execution of her third stepmother, Catherine Howard, in 1541, vowing: “I will never marry.” He would always remember the conversation, and it may have been the reason he decided to marry Amy Robsart nine years later. During the years that followed, Robert kept his wife away from court – mindful, perhaps, that it might damage his relationship with Elizabeth. The years of uncertainty during Mary Tudor’s reign (1553–58), when Elizabeth lived in constant fear for her life, brought her ever closer to Dudley. He remained loyal to her throughout, even when it risked his own safety. They spent many hours together and had a great deal in common, sharing a love of hunting, dancing and lively conversation. This sparked endless gossip among the princess’s household, particularly given that Dudley was a married man. His loyalty was rewarded when Elizabeth became queen in 1558, at the age of 25. She immediately appointed Dudley to be her Master of Horse, a prestigious position that involved regular attendance upon his royal mistress. But it was no longer easy for the couple to meet in private. As queen, Elizabeth’s every move was scrutinised not just by her people, but by the whole of Europe. “A thousand eyes see all I do,” she once complained. Nevertheless, Elizabeth made it clear that she had no intention of giving up her favourite. If anything, she found ways to spend even more time with him. A year after her accession, she had Dudley’s bedchamber moved next to her private rooms in order to facilitate their clandestine meetings. Before long, their relationship was causing a scandal not just in England, but in courts across Europe. The obvious intimacy between them provoked endless speculation about just how close their relationship was. Elizabeth’s chief rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, was in no doubt that Elizabeth and Dudley were lovers, and later told the noblewoman Bess of Hardwick that he had visited the queen’s bed numerous times. It is unlikely that Elizabeth, who had seen so many powerful examples of the perils of sex and childbirth, would have risked the throne she had fought so hard for by sleeping with her favourite. But their friendship probably charted a careful course between platonic and sexual. The rumours flared up again in 1587, when a young man going by the name of Arthur Dudley arrived at Philip II’s court in Madrid, Spain, claiming to be the illegitimate child of the English queen and her favourite, Robert Dudley. His age placed his conception at 1561, which coincided with Elizabeth being bedridden with a mysterious illness that caused her body to swell. The account therefore had an air of credibility, made more so by the fact that Arthur was able to name a servant who had allegedly spirited him away from the royal palace of Hampton Court (near London) as soon as he was born and raised him as his own, only confessing the truth on his deathbed in 1583. There is no firm evidence to corroborate the story, but it suited King Philip’s interests to discredit the English queen. Ironically, the death of Dudley’s wife in 1560, at her residence Cumnor Place, removed any hope that Elizabeth may have privately cherished of one day marrying him. The circumstances were suspicious. Amy insisted that all her servants attend a local fair. When they returned, they found her at the bottom of a short flight of stairs, her neck broken. Whether it was an accident, suicide or murder has never been resolved beyond doubt. The finger of suspicion pointed at Dudley, whom his enemies claimed would not have flinched from having his own wife put to death so that he could realise his ambitions of marrying the queen. Mary, Queen of Scots quipped that the queen of England was about to marry her “horsekeeper” who had killed his wife in order to make way for her. Elizabeth was also in the frame: many believed that her passion for Dudley had driven her to have his wife murdered so that she could have him at last. Yet it is extremely unlikely that Dudley or Elizabeth had any hand in Amy’s death. They would hardly have taken such a risk, especially as they would have known that it would prove counterproductive to any plans they may have had to marry. The scandal reverberated not just around the kingdom but across the courts of Europe, so that Elizabeth was obliged to distance herself from Dudley in order to avoid being implicated any further. The death of Amy Robsart in 1560. Dudley came under suspicion when his wife was found dead at the bottom of their stairs. In the ensuing scandal, the queen had to distance herself from him, in public at least. (Nottingham Castle/Bridgeman Images) But in private, the queen refused to give up her favourite. Now that the scrutiny of the court was even more intense, she was obliged to go to even greater lengths to conceal their meetings. In November 1561, for example, she disguised herself as the maid of Katherine Howard (later Countess of Nottingham) in order to enjoy the secret pleasure of watching Dudley shoot near Windsor Castle. Another attempt at discretion was less successful. When her close friend and attendant Lady Fiennes de Clinton helped Elizabeth escape court in disguise to meet Dudley at his house for dinner, Philip II of Spain’s envoy heard of it and immediately reported it to his master. In the letters that Queen Elizabeth and Dudley exchanged, they used the symbol ‘ôô’ as code for the nickname of ‘Eyes’ that she had given him. Elizabeth kept her favourite’s letters, along with his portrait, in a locked desk next to her bed. On a visit to court in 1564, the Scottish ambassador Sir James Melville spied the portrait as Elizabeth was searching for one of his own royal mistress. When he asked if he could borrow it to show the Scottish queen, Elizabeth immediately refused, “alleging that she had but that one picture of his”. Spying Robert Dudley in a corner of the bedchamber, Melville slyly observed that she should not cling so to the portrait, since “she had the original.” As her reign progressed and the pressure to marry grew ever more intense, Elizabeth pretended to consider numerous potential suitors. But she would never commit to any of them. The Venetian ambassador shrewdly observed: “She has many suitors for her hand, and by protracting any decision keeps them all in hope.” Meanwhile, now that the scandal of his wife’s death had faded, Robert Dudley stepped up his campaign to make Queen Elizabeth his wife. He besieged her with protestations of his undying affection, all of which his royal mistress received with obvious pleasure but with no firm promises. By 1575, Dudley was growing desperate and decided to make one last, spectacular attempt to persuade Elizabeth to marry him. Pulling out all the stops, he invited her to his Warwickshire estate, Kenilworth Castle, and staged several days of extraordinarily lavish entertainments at a huge cost. The queen loved every minute of her visit there, but would not be dazzled into acquiescence. Genuine though her affection for Robert was, she knew that marrying him would court disaster in her kingdom, sparking such intense opposition from Dudley’s rivals that it might even spill out into civil war. For all his desperation to marry the queen, Dudley had been secretly courting one of her ladies-in-waiting, Lettice Knollys. Described as being one of the best-looking women of the court, she was of royal blood, being the great-niece of Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn. This no doubt added to her attraction for Dudley, who had enjoyed a flirtation with Lettice for the previous 10 years. Now that his last-ditch attempt to persuade Elizabeth to marry him had failed, he took Lettice as his mistress. For a time, Elizabeth was blissfully unaware that her favourite was betraying her. But three years into the affair, Lettice became pregnant. She was not a woman to be set aside and insisted that Dudley marry her. Fearing the inevitable backlash from his royal mistress, he agreed only to a secret ceremony, which took place in 1578. The bride was said to have worn “a loose gown” – a coded reference to her pregnant state. It was not long before the secret leaked out at court. When Elizabeth learned that her cousin had stolen the only man she had truly loved, she flew into a jealous rage, boxing Lettice’s ears and screaming that “as but one sun lightened the earth, she would have but one queen in England”. She then banished this “flouting wench” from her presence, vowing never to set eyes on her again. Although she eventually forgave Dudley, their relationship had lost the intimacy that had defined it for so many years. But towards the end of Dudley’s life, they grew close once more. In 1586, he went to command her forces in the Netherlands. Missing him, she wrote an affectionate letter, which she signed: “As you know, ever the same. ER.” “Ever the same” or “semper eadem” was her motto, but she and Dudley knew how much more it signified in their relationship. The following year, the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots at Elizabeth’s orders threw her into turmoil and it was to her old favourite that she turned for comfort. Dudley was also by Elizabeth’s side through the Armada crisis of 1588 (the Spanish navy’s failed attempt to invade England, thwarted by the English fleet). By now he was gravely ill but did not hesitate to accept the post of ‘Lieutenant and Captain-General of the Queen’s Armies and Companies’. He walked beside her horse as his royal mistress delivered her famous speech at Tilbury on 8 August 1588, while inspecting the troops that had been assembled to defend the Thames Estuary against any incursion up-river towards London: “I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king and of a king of England too.” He stayed with the queen in the immediate aftermath of the Armada, wishing to be certain that the danger had passed. One of the last recorded sightings of the pair together was at a palace window, watching a celebratory parade staged by his stepson, the Earl of Essex. By now in poor health, Dudley took his leave of Elizabeth. He, at least, must have known that it would be for the last time. A few days later, he wrote to Elizabeth from Rycote in Oxfordshire, ending the letter: “I humbly kiss your foot… by Your Majesty’s most faithful and obedient servant.” These were probably the last words ever written by Robert Dudley. Five days later, on 4 September 1588, he breathed his last. Elizabeth was inconsolable at the loss of “sweet Robin”, the only man whom she had ever truly loved. Their relationship had survived almost 50 years of trials and tribulations, and Elizabeth was lost without him. In the days immediately after his death, she kept to her room, unable to face her court or council. The brief note that he had sent her from Rycote now became her most treasured possession. She inscribed it “His last letter”, and kept it in a locked casket by her bed for the rest of her life. For years afterwards if anyone mentioned Robert Dudley’s name her eyes filled with tears.
Elizabeth's other men
As well as Dudley, the Virgin Queen had several other contenders for her heart
Eric XIV of Sweden (1533–77)
Realising that marrying a home-grown candidate was fraught with difficulty, Elizabeth’s ministers focused upon suitors from overseas for most of her reign. One of the earliest was King Eric XIV of Sweden, who had started to make overtures towards Elizabeth before she was queen. He continued to pursue her for several years and even made plans to visit her. Horrified, she wrote him a polite but firm letter, telling him to stay away and assuring him: “We have never yet conceived a feeling of that kind of affection towards anyone.”
Philip II of Spain (1527–98)
Even while he had been married to her sister Mary I, Philip II of Spain had made overtures towards Elizabeth, beguiled by her youthful charms. When Mary died, Philip – who had been styled ‘King of England’ for his wife’s lifetime only – was reluctant to give up his English kingdom and so sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. He urged the new queen to consider the advantages of having the protection of Spain. Elizabeth employed what would become her customary tactic of delaying, but eventually told Philip that she could not marry her sister’s widower, and that his Catholicism would not be acceptable to her people. Thenceforth, they were enemies.
François, Duke of Alençon and Anjou (1555–84)
Elizabeth’s last serious suitor was François, the Duke of Alençon and Anjou, and the youngest son of King Henry II of France. He had first been proposed as a husband in 1578, when he was 23 and Elizabeth 45. Despite the considerable age gap, the pair became very close, aided by the fact that the duke was the only one of the queen’s many suitors to court her in person. Calling him her “frog”, Queen Elizabeth showered the young duke with affection, and he gave every appearance of returning her love. But it all came to nothing, and François eventually returned to France in 1581.
Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex (1565–1601)
Robert was the son of Elizabeth’s rival Lettice Knollys with her first husband Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex. He was 30 years younger than Elizabeth but gave every appearance of being passionately in love with her. She was beguiled by his darkly handsome looks and swaggering self-confidence, which made him take greater liberties with the queen than anyone else dared. Painfully aware that age had ravished her looks, she was fiercely possessive of his attentions. But Essex had already proved false. In 1590, he had incurred her wrath by secretly marrying Frances Walsingham, daughter of the secretary of state. He later led a rebellion against Elizabeth’s regime and was executed in 1601. Dr Tracy Borman is joint chief curator of Historic Royal Palaces and an expert on the Tudor period.
History Trivia - Massacre of Glencoe Scotland
February 13
1692 Massacre of Glencoe Scotland where 38 members of the MacDonald clan were murdered by soldiers of the Campbell clan for not pledging allegiance to William of Orange.
1692 Massacre of Glencoe Scotland where 38 members of the MacDonald clan were murdered by soldiers of the Campbell clan for not pledging allegiance to William of Orange.
February 12, 2016
Archaeologists uncover underground church with scenes of the damned in Turkey
Ancient Origins
An underground Orthodox church carved into rock in Turkey with scenes of Jesus rising into the sky and the killing of bad souls has been discovered—the first of its kind with such paintings, says the mayor of the town where the church was unearthed.“We know that such frescoes have so far never been seen in any other church,” Nevşehir Mayor Hasan Ünver told Hurriyet Daily News. “This place is even bigger than the other historical churches in Cappadocia. It was built underground and has original frescoes that have survived to this day.”The region of Cappadocia in central Turkey is home to one of the most spectacular landscapes in the world – deep valleys and soaring rock formations dotted with homes, chapels, tombs, temples and entire subterranean cities harmoniously carved into the natural landforms. Cities, empires and religions have risen and fallen around these unique underground havens. Archaeologists in December 2014announced they uncovered a massive underground city in Cappadocia, consisting of at least 7 kilometers (3.5 miles) of tunnels, hidden churches, and escape galleries dating back around 5,000 years.Calling it the biggest archeological finding of 2014, Hurriyet Daily News said the ancient city was found beneath Nevşehir fortress and the surrounding area during an urban transformation project carried out by Turkey’s Housing Development Administration (TOKİ). About 1,500 buildings were found in and around the Nevşehir fortress, and the underground city was discovered during earthmoving to construct new buildings.
The rock houses of Cappadocia. (Public domain)The church found in 2016 is among the many structures in the underground city. Unver said the church may have been built in the 5th century AD.“We didn’t even think of finding such a structure when we first started works. But excavations and cleaning work are continuing and we hope to find new data relating to the history of Cappadocia,” Mr. Ünver told Hurriyet. “It is reported that some of the frescoes here are unique. There are exciting depictions like fish falling from the hand of Jesus Christ, him rising up into the sky, and the bad souls being killed. When the church is completely revealed, Cappadocia could become an even bigger pilgrimage center of Orthodoxy.”Semih İstanbulluoğlu, the archaeologist who is leading the dig in the underground city and church, said snow and rain made the thin walls of the church collapse, but workers would fix them during restorations. 
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An underground house in Cappadocia (Photo by Ed Yourdon/ Wikimedia Commons )At the time it was found, the church was filled with dirt, and the archaeological team had to collect pieces of the frescoes. Though some frescoes appear to be intact, restoration work will restore as many as possible.Ali Aydın, another archaeologist on the job, said they would have to dry the humidity in the church slowly to prevent the frescoes from disintegrating. After the weather warms in the spring, work will resume to protect the frescoes and restore the church, and the team will remove the humidity.Cappadocia covers the region between the cities of Nevşehir, Ürgüp and Avanos, the sites of Karain, Karlık, Yeşilöz, Soğanlı and the subterranean cities of Kaymaklı and Derinkuyu. One hundred square miles with more than 200 underground villages and tunnel towns complete with hidden passages, secret rooms and ancient temples and a remarkably storied history of each new civilization building on the work of the last, make Cappadocia one of the world's most striking and largest cave-dwelling regions of the world.Watch UNESCO’s video about Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of CappadociaFeatured image: Two of the frescoes from the church, which is in a region of 200 underground villages and tunnel towns. (AA photo)By Mark Miller
An underground Orthodox church carved into rock in Turkey with scenes of Jesus rising into the sky and the killing of bad souls has been discovered—the first of its kind with such paintings, says the mayor of the town where the church was unearthed.“We know that such frescoes have so far never been seen in any other church,” Nevşehir Mayor Hasan Ünver told Hurriyet Daily News. “This place is even bigger than the other historical churches in Cappadocia. It was built underground and has original frescoes that have survived to this day.”The region of Cappadocia in central Turkey is home to one of the most spectacular landscapes in the world – deep valleys and soaring rock formations dotted with homes, chapels, tombs, temples and entire subterranean cities harmoniously carved into the natural landforms. Cities, empires and religions have risen and fallen around these unique underground havens. Archaeologists in December 2014announced they uncovered a massive underground city in Cappadocia, consisting of at least 7 kilometers (3.5 miles) of tunnels, hidden churches, and escape galleries dating back around 5,000 years.Calling it the biggest archeological finding of 2014, Hurriyet Daily News said the ancient city was found beneath Nevşehir fortress and the surrounding area during an urban transformation project carried out by Turkey’s Housing Development Administration (TOKİ). About 1,500 buildings were found in and around the Nevşehir fortress, and the underground city was discovered during earthmoving to construct new buildings.The rock houses of Cappadocia. (Public domain)The church found in 2016 is among the many structures in the underground city. Unver said the church may have been built in the 5th century AD.“We didn’t even think of finding such a structure when we first started works. But excavations and cleaning work are continuing and we hope to find new data relating to the history of Cappadocia,” Mr. Ünver told Hurriyet. “It is reported that some of the frescoes here are unique. There are exciting depictions like fish falling from the hand of Jesus Christ, him rising up into the sky, and the bad souls being killed. When the church is completely revealed, Cappadocia could become an even bigger pilgrimage center of Orthodoxy.”Semih İstanbulluoğlu, the archaeologist who is leading the dig in the underground city and church, said snow and rain made the thin walls of the church collapse, but workers would fix them during restorations.
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[image error]An underground house in Cappadocia (Photo by Ed Yourdon/ Wikimedia Commons )At the time it was found, the church was filled with dirt, and the archaeological team had to collect pieces of the frescoes. Though some frescoes appear to be intact, restoration work will restore as many as possible.Ali Aydın, another archaeologist on the job, said they would have to dry the humidity in the church slowly to prevent the frescoes from disintegrating. After the weather warms in the spring, work will resume to protect the frescoes and restore the church, and the team will remove the humidity.Cappadocia covers the region between the cities of Nevşehir, Ürgüp and Avanos, the sites of Karain, Karlık, Yeşilöz, Soğanlı and the subterranean cities of Kaymaklı and Derinkuyu. One hundred square miles with more than 200 underground villages and tunnel towns complete with hidden passages, secret rooms and ancient temples and a remarkably storied history of each new civilization building on the work of the last, make Cappadocia one of the world's most striking and largest cave-dwelling regions of the world.Watch UNESCO’s video about Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of CappadociaFeatured image: Two of the frescoes from the church, which is in a region of 200 underground villages and tunnel towns. (AA photo)By Mark Miller
History Trivia - Charles the Fat crowned Holy Roman Emperor
February 12
881 Pope John VIII crowned Charles the Fat, the King of Italy, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles was the grandson of Charlemagne who suffered from epilepsy and other illnesses; he also paid the Vikings to keep the barbarians from pillaging his empire.
881 Pope John VIII crowned Charles the Fat, the King of Italy, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles was the grandson of Charlemagne who suffered from epilepsy and other illnesses; he also paid the Vikings to keep the barbarians from pillaging his empire.
February 11, 2016
Audio Book Launch - The Briton and the Dane: Concordia by Mary Ann Bernal, Narrated by Sebastian Lockwood
Narrated by traveling bard, Sebastian LockwoodCaptured by Saracen pirates, Concordia finds herself at the center of intrigue, plots, blackmail, betrayal and the vain desires of two egotistical brothers, each willing to die for her favor. While awaiting rescue, Concordia must defend her honor while plotting her escape somewhere inside steamy, unconquered Muslim Hispania.Amazon Link
Audible Link
iTunes Link
Researchers Say Stonehenge had More Gender Equality than Commonly Believed
Ancient Origins
Analysis of remains from the famous megalithic site of Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, England, have revealed the relics of 14 wmen. According to researchers, the women were very important to the society of their time and their burials suggest that Stonehenge was a site with more gender equality than most people believe. During the latest excavation, more remains of women than men were discovered at Stonehenge. In 2008, archaeologists discovered remains of about 200 cremated adults. According to the researchers in the latest study, it was surprising to find hints at gender equality in the burials.
Their results go against the common portrayal of prehistoric man as the one in charge of the site with barely a woman in sight. The newest discovery also confirms the importance of women in the societies which were buried there.
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[image error]A group of people performing Neo-Druid (Druid) rituals at Stonehenge in 2007. ( CC BY SA 2.0 ) Results of a current study suggest that Stonehenge was a site with high gender equality. The most recent excavation was focused on the place known as Aubrey Hole 7, one of 56 chalk pits dug outside of the stone circle. It is dated to the earliest times of Stonehenge, in the late 4th or early 3rd millennium BC.
The ring of Aubrey Holes that were excavated in the 1920s are marked with red circles. ( Credit: Adam Stanford )Mike Pitts, archaeologist, editor of British Archaeology , and author of Hengeworld explained to the press that cemeteries of this period are rare, but Stonehenge seems to be an exception. All the people buried in Stonehenge were likely to have been special in their societies. They could have had a high status, possessed special skills or knowledge, or perhaps they were ritual or political leaders. The discovery was also connected with several other finds supporting the theory that Stonehenge functioned as a cremation cemetery for leaders and other important individuals. As Mike Pitts told Discovery News :
“In almost every depiction of Stonehenge by artists and TV re-enactors we see lots of men, a man in charge, and few or no women. The archeology now shows that as far as the burials go, women were as prominent there as men. This contrasts with the earlier burial mounds, where men seem to be more prominent.”
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[image error]A drawing of Stonehenge from 1645. ( Public Domain )The BBC reports that at least 14 females and nine males were discovered in Aubrey Hole seven, and some of the males were young adults. It is uncertain if the men were linked with the women in some way, but archaeologists have suggested that they could have been relatives.
Radiocarbon dating of all known burials at Stonehenge reveals that they took place in several episodes from about 3100 BC to at least 2140 BC. Christie Willis of the University College London Institute of Archaeology reported that long bone pins, hair pins, and a mace head made out of gneiss were also found with the cremated remains.
Excavating in 2008. ( Credit: Mike Pitts )Willis told Discovery News that the role of women in society in the area "probably declined again towards the 3rd millennium BC, both archaeological and historical evidence has shown that women’s status has gone up and down quite noticeably at different times in the past." Elevated Origins: Radical new theory suggests Stonehenge was base of an above-ground celestial altar The Missing Link to Stonehenge: Stone Age Eco-Home Discovered near Famous Monument Architect presents radical new theory that Stonehenge was a two-storey, wooden feasting and performance hall Healing Energies of Stonehenge Willis and Pitts agree that a lack of corpses of children means that their remains were treated differently. They suggest that the children were cremated, but their ashes were scattered in the nearby river Avon. Finally, they claim that there is a common association between the sources of the upper reaches of significant rivers and late Neolithic religious centers like Stonehenge.
Some of the areas of Stonehenge that have been excavated. Located cremation burials are shown with a red dot. ( Credit: Mike Pitts )In 2003, researchers from the University of British Columbia in Canada announced that a study by Anthony Perks shows that Stonehenge is it is a giant fertility symbol, constructed in the shape of the female sexual organ. According to The Guardian , Stonehenge could have represented the opening by which Mother Earth gave birth to the plants and animals on which ancient people so depended. There were no proven burials in Stonehenge at the time of this research. A few years later, in 2008, Mike Parker Pearson, archaeology professor at the University of Sheffield in the UK, and part of the Stonehenge Riverside Archaeological Project, announced the role of Stonehenge in death as well. As he said to National Geographic :
''Stonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith in the mid third millennium B.C. The cremation burial dating to Stonehenge’s sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from this later period of the monument’s use and demonstrates that it was still very much a ‘domain of the dead.''Featured image: Stonehenge, located near Salisbury in the English county of Wiltshire. ( CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 )
By Natalia Klimczak
History Trivia - Death of Elizabeth of York
February 11
1466 Elizabeth of York Queen of England and mother of Henry VIII was born. Elizabeth had seven children and died in childbirth on February 11th, 1503.
1466 Elizabeth of York Queen of England and mother of Henry VIII was born. Elizabeth had seven children and died in childbirth on February 11th, 1503.
February 10, 2016
2,000-Year-Old Pyramid in Rome Gets a Facelift
Ancient Origins
Few are aware that in the heart of Rome there sits a 2,000-year-old pyramid constructed as the burial tomb for a Roman praetor named Caius Cestius. It is Rome’s only surviving pyramid from ancient times, however, decades of neglect left the white marble exterior covered in grime and corroded by pollution. Thanks to a wealthy Japanese clothing magnate, the Pyramid of Cestius has just received a facelift and is now open for exclusive tours.
Associated Press reports that Yuzo Yagi, who heads a clothing and textile company, provided 2 million euros toward the restoration of the pyramid, and it is now back to its shiny white marble exterior. Furthermore, the pyramid is being maintained and cleaned every few months by a team of free-climbers, eliminating the need for costly scaffolding.
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The tip of the Pyramid of Cestius, now back to its shiny white surface ( public domain )Egyptian Influence on the Roman EmpireThe Great Pyramid of Giza is undoubtedly one of the most well-known icons of ancient Egypt. Nevertheless, similar pyramids are found scattered all throughout Egypt and beyond. For example, Egyptian-style pyramids have been found south of the border in modern day Sudan. These pyramids were built by the rulers of the Kingdom of Kush.
In 30 BC, Egypt became a province in the Roman Empire, and the Romans even launched a military expedition into Kushite territory in 23 BC. It is possible that the encounter with the Egyptian pyramids, or the Kushite ones, or both, influenced the construction of the Pyramid of Cestius in one of the most unlikely of places, Rome.
Pyramids of Meroë stand as Last Remnants of a Powerful Civilization16 Ancient Pyramids, Burial Sites for a Vanished Kingdom, Found in Sudan Archaeologists discover ancient Rome may have been much larger than previously believedThe Lupercal Cave: A Refuge for Romulus and Remus and the Roman Festival of LupercaliaIt should first be pointed out that the Pyramid of Cestius was not the only Egyptian-style pyramid in Rome. There was also another pyramid, known as the ‘Pyramid of Romulus’. Incidentally, during the Middle Ages, the Pyramid of Cestius was known as the ‘Pyramid of Remus’, and it was believed that these two pyramids were the tombs of the legendary founders of Rome. The larger ‘Pyramid of Romulus’, located between the Vatican and Hadrian’s Mausoleum (known also as the Castel Sant’Angelo), was dismantled sometime during the 16th century so that its marble could be used in the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica.
The ‘Vision of the Cross’ by Raphael (
Public Domain
). The Pyramid of Romulus is depicted in the background. The Construction of the Pyramid of CestiusThe Pyramid of Cestius was built along the Via Ostiensis sometime between 18 and 12 BC. The pyramid has a nucleus of concrete with a curtain of brick, and its exterior is covered with Luni marble. The base of the structure is a square measuring 29.5 m (96.58 ft.) on each side, whist its height is measured at 36.4 m (119.4 ft.)
Within, the pyramid is a barrel-vaulted burial chamber measuring about 23 square metres (247.6 sq. ft.), and it was walled up in accordance with Egyptian custom at the time of entombment. During the 3rd century AD, the pyramid was incorporated into the circuit of walls known as the Aurelian Walls. One of the southern gates, the Porta San Paolo, is just a stone’s throw away from this monument.
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The Pyramid of Cestius incorporated into the Aurelian Walls ( Public Domain )Ancient InscriptionsThe identity of the pyramid was later forgotten, and was only rediscovered sometime in the 1600s. During this time, the pyramid was being restored, and the inscriptions on its faces were uncovered. According to the inscriptions on the east and the west flanks of the pyramid, the structure was built as a tomb for a man called Gaius Cestius Epulo, the son of Lucius, of the tribe of Pobilia. The inscription also mentions that Cestius was a praetor, a tribune of the plebs, and a septemvir of the Epulones (a college of priests responsible for preparing the feasts in honor of the gods). A second inscription announces that the building of this monument was completed in 330 days.
Inscription on the Pyramid of Cestius (
Giovanni Dall'Orto/CC.0
)Restoration of the PyramidOver the centuries, the Pyramid of Cestius has been battered by the elements. The first major restoration was undertaken in the 1600s, and the restoration of the burial chamber was carried out in 2001. In 2011, Yuzo Yagi announced his intention to provided funding for further restoration.
Archaeologist Leonardo Guarnieri told reporters on Wednesday that tours, including of the frescoed burial chamber, are now being given twice a month by reservation. Visits can be booked at www.coopculture.it
The entrance to the Pyramid of Caius Cestius in Rome, Italy, as seen from inside (
public domain
)Featured image: The Pyramid of Cestius, Rome. Source:
Zachary Maggio/CC BY 2.0
By April Holloway
Content also provided by Dhwty (see ‘What is a Pyramid doing in the Heart of Rome?’)
Referencesarcheoroma.beniculturali.it, 2012. Pyramid of Caius Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://archeoroma.beniculturali.it/en/archaeological-site/pyramid-caius-cestius
Black, A., 2015. Pyramid of Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/pyramid-of-cestius
famouswonders.com, 2011. Pyramid of Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://famouswonders.com/pyramid-of-cestius/
Lendering, J., 2003. Pyramid of Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://www.livius.org/ro-rz/rome/rome_pyramid_cestius.html
Squires, N., 2011. Japanese tycoon steps in to restore dilapidated treasure in Rome. [Online]
Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/8983766/Japanese-tycoon-steps-in-to-restore-dilapidated-treasure-in-Rome.html
www.aviewoncities.com, 2015. Pyramid of Caius Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/pyramidofcaiuscestius.htm
Few are aware that in the heart of Rome there sits a 2,000-year-old pyramid constructed as the burial tomb for a Roman praetor named Caius Cestius. It is Rome’s only surviving pyramid from ancient times, however, decades of neglect left the white marble exterior covered in grime and corroded by pollution. Thanks to a wealthy Japanese clothing magnate, the Pyramid of Cestius has just received a facelift and is now open for exclusive tours.Associated Press reports that Yuzo Yagi, who heads a clothing and textile company, provided 2 million euros toward the restoration of the pyramid, and it is now back to its shiny white marble exterior. Furthermore, the pyramid is being maintained and cleaned every few months by a team of free-climbers, eliminating the need for costly scaffolding.
[image error]
[image error]The tip of the Pyramid of Cestius, now back to its shiny white surface ( public domain )Egyptian Influence on the Roman EmpireThe Great Pyramid of Giza is undoubtedly one of the most well-known icons of ancient Egypt. Nevertheless, similar pyramids are found scattered all throughout Egypt and beyond. For example, Egyptian-style pyramids have been found south of the border in modern day Sudan. These pyramids were built by the rulers of the Kingdom of Kush.
In 30 BC, Egypt became a province in the Roman Empire, and the Romans even launched a military expedition into Kushite territory in 23 BC. It is possible that the encounter with the Egyptian pyramids, or the Kushite ones, or both, influenced the construction of the Pyramid of Cestius in one of the most unlikely of places, Rome.
Pyramids of Meroë stand as Last Remnants of a Powerful Civilization16 Ancient Pyramids, Burial Sites for a Vanished Kingdom, Found in Sudan Archaeologists discover ancient Rome may have been much larger than previously believedThe Lupercal Cave: A Refuge for Romulus and Remus and the Roman Festival of LupercaliaIt should first be pointed out that the Pyramid of Cestius was not the only Egyptian-style pyramid in Rome. There was also another pyramid, known as the ‘Pyramid of Romulus’. Incidentally, during the Middle Ages, the Pyramid of Cestius was known as the ‘Pyramid of Remus’, and it was believed that these two pyramids were the tombs of the legendary founders of Rome. The larger ‘Pyramid of Romulus’, located between the Vatican and Hadrian’s Mausoleum (known also as the Castel Sant’Angelo), was dismantled sometime during the 16th century so that its marble could be used in the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica.
The ‘Vision of the Cross’ by Raphael (
Public Domain
). The Pyramid of Romulus is depicted in the background. The Construction of the Pyramid of CestiusThe Pyramid of Cestius was built along the Via Ostiensis sometime between 18 and 12 BC. The pyramid has a nucleus of concrete with a curtain of brick, and its exterior is covered with Luni marble. The base of the structure is a square measuring 29.5 m (96.58 ft.) on each side, whist its height is measured at 36.4 m (119.4 ft.)Within, the pyramid is a barrel-vaulted burial chamber measuring about 23 square metres (247.6 sq. ft.), and it was walled up in accordance with Egyptian custom at the time of entombment. During the 3rd century AD, the pyramid was incorporated into the circuit of walls known as the Aurelian Walls. One of the southern gates, the Porta San Paolo, is just a stone’s throw away from this monument.
[image error]
[image error]The Pyramid of Cestius incorporated into the Aurelian Walls ( Public Domain )Ancient InscriptionsThe identity of the pyramid was later forgotten, and was only rediscovered sometime in the 1600s. During this time, the pyramid was being restored, and the inscriptions on its faces were uncovered. According to the inscriptions on the east and the west flanks of the pyramid, the structure was built as a tomb for a man called Gaius Cestius Epulo, the son of Lucius, of the tribe of Pobilia. The inscription also mentions that Cestius was a praetor, a tribune of the plebs, and a septemvir of the Epulones (a college of priests responsible for preparing the feasts in honor of the gods). A second inscription announces that the building of this monument was completed in 330 days.
Inscription on the Pyramid of Cestius (
Giovanni Dall'Orto/CC.0
)Restoration of the PyramidOver the centuries, the Pyramid of Cestius has been battered by the elements. The first major restoration was undertaken in the 1600s, and the restoration of the burial chamber was carried out in 2001. In 2011, Yuzo Yagi announced his intention to provided funding for further restoration.Archaeologist Leonardo Guarnieri told reporters on Wednesday that tours, including of the frescoed burial chamber, are now being given twice a month by reservation. Visits can be booked at www.coopculture.it
The entrance to the Pyramid of Caius Cestius in Rome, Italy, as seen from inside (
public domain
)Featured image: The Pyramid of Cestius, Rome. Source:
Zachary Maggio/CC BY 2.0
By April Holloway
Content also provided by Dhwty (see ‘What is a Pyramid doing in the Heart of Rome?’)
Referencesarcheoroma.beniculturali.it, 2012. Pyramid of Caius Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://archeoroma.beniculturali.it/en/archaeological-site/pyramid-caius-cestius
Black, A., 2015. Pyramid of Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/pyramid-of-cestius
famouswonders.com, 2011. Pyramid of Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://famouswonders.com/pyramid-of-cestius/
Lendering, J., 2003. Pyramid of Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://www.livius.org/ro-rz/rome/rome_pyramid_cestius.html
Squires, N., 2011. Japanese tycoon steps in to restore dilapidated treasure in Rome. [Online]
Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/8983766/Japanese-tycoon-steps-in-to-restore-dilapidated-treasure-in-Rome.html
www.aviewoncities.com, 2015. Pyramid of Caius Cestius. [Online]
Available at: http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/pyramidofcaiuscestius.htm
History Trivia - Murder of Comyn sparks Scottish Wars of Independence
February 10
1306 Robert the Bruce murdered his leading political rival John Comyn in front of the high altar of Greyfriars Church in Dumfries and sparked revolution in the Scottish Wars of Independence.
1306 Robert the Bruce murdered his leading political rival John Comyn in front of the high altar of Greyfriars Church in Dumfries and sparked revolution in the Scottish Wars of Independence.
