Oxford University Press's Blog, page 357

Getting in on the joke

Last month we brought you a short interview with Katie Holmes, about her article, Does It Matter If She Cried? Recording Emotion and the Australian Generations Oral History Project, asking how to read and make sense of emotion in oral history. Today we continue this conversation in an interview with Julian Simpson, one of the authors of another piece in OHR 44.1, Why We Should Try to Get the Joke: Humor, Laughter, and the History of Healthcare. Along with his co-author, Stephanie Snow, Simpson argued that making sense of humor is critical for understanding the history of healthcare and that oral historians need to do a better job of listening for and analyzing humor. In our conversation, we discussed the importance of paying to jokes, what they can reveal, and some of the particularities of humor in British culture.

How did this project begin? Did you go into it with the expectation of studying the use of humor, or did that emerge as you conducted your research?

The initial aim of the study was not at all to explore the role of humor in healthcare. My colleague at the University of Manchester, Stephanie Snow, was commissioned by a group of people connected to Guy’s and St Thomas’ hospitals to research the recent past of the hospitals and their associated institutions (medical schools, staff organizations etc.). We are both interested in the recent history of British healthcare and in how it can inform the present. The initial idea, both for us and those who initiated the project, was to look at the impact of recent change in British healthcare on those institutions, with a view to producing a history that would also speak to the present. The research was funded by the Guy’s and St Thomas’ Charity, and we are currently working on a book which is to published by Bloomsbury with the title At the frontline of British Healthcare: Guy’s, St Thomas’ and NHS reform since the 1970s.

It gradually became apparent however in the course of our research that the importance of humor as a part of medical culture had been underexplored by historians and that we had a wealth of evidence that it would make sense to share. Possibly because the interviews we were conducting touched upon issues that affected participants quite profoundly (for instance, the merger of Guy’s and St Thomas’ hospitals or neoliberal reform of the British healthcare system) and could be difficult to discuss, humor and laughter ended up featuring quite regularly in interviews. Humor seemed to be a key dimension of the materials we had gathered in archives as well. It was therefore more a case of humor suggesting itself to us as an important dimension of this research, both as a part of the history we were researching and as a key to understanding other aspects of it.

You argue that humor is an understudied aspect of both oral history and the medical field. What pointers can you give to people interested in addressing this lack of serious consideration?

When it comes to oral history interviews, reflecting on the use of humor has taught me that when people laugh in interviews or resort to humor it is often worthwhile spending some time reflecting on why they chose to do so. It can be enjoyable in itself to hear someone tell an amusing story but in the context of understanding the past through oral history, it is also important to go beyond our initial emotional response to what we have been told and reflect on what else is being communicated. Basically, we came to a slow realization that when a participant laughed or used humor in an interview, they were frequently signaling that the issue under discussion was a sensitive one or one that could be difficult to broach. Once you start thinking about humor in this way, it opens up new ways of analyzing materials. This applies as well to documents found in archives. So it is firstly a question of how we think about humor and laughter and the significance we attach to them.

In terms of exploring humor as a dimension of medical culture, I suspect that the fact we did joint interviews as part of the project contributed to bringing this to the fore. Humor in healthcare environments can involve transgressing some of our most fundamental taboos (in the article we quote a participant who spoke of laughing when dissecting corpses as a medical student) so it’s important to give participants the sense that they are ‘safe’ when sharing their memories. Being able to do this in the presence of others with an insider’s understanding of healthcare work can only help. If I were to focus exclusively on the subject of humor in medicine I’d be tempted to systematically make all interviews anonymous so that participants would not be concerned about how their anecdotes may be perceived. Transgressions that are understood in a particular profession may appear shocking to the general public – but then most members of the general public don’t have to deal with dying patients and dead bodies on a regular basis. It’s important as well to gain trust as in any oral history project. Especially with younger participants, there was at times the sense that they felt the need to be on their guard, in an age when any throwaway remark can be posted on the internet, resulting in the end of a medical career before it has properly started.

The article wonders how medical professionals might cope with stress if humor is becoming less tolerated in the medical field. Did your interviews give any indication of what medical professionals might be using in its place?

I think it would take a project exclusively focused on humor in medicine and its evolution to really get to the bottom of that question. The interviews that we did with medical students and some of the other materials we located lead me to believe that it still plays its part although people have become a lot more careful than they used to be about what they say and in what context they say it. That’s just an impression though. As I said, we didn’t set out to study humor specifically and therefore, our aim in this paper was more to point to the significance of a number of questions rather than necessarily seek to answer them. It would certainly be very interesting to explore the role of peer support and counselling to see if they are indeed in some ways substitutes for the sort of humor that would most probably result in staff being dismissed these days. One participant told me a story (interestingly in light of what I’ve just said about people being concerned about how anecdotes may be perceived, after we finished our interview) involving a serial male prankster who (successfully) impersonated a female member of staff on a ward and on another occasion caused a security incident when he gained access to the roof of the hospital. I’m not persuaded this sort of behavior would just be laughed off as a bit eccentric today. It is also possible though that humor like this has gone ‘underground’ and is simply less visible to the eyes of prying researchers…

In the second half of the article you connect particular humorous events (like the pantomime) to changes in UK healthcare happening simultaneously. Based on your findings, does it appear satire is more situation and distinct from the general coping usage of humor?

It’s hard to generalize in this respect – medical students also seemed to have a lot of fun satirizing their teachers and humanities students for instance. So, it can also be seen as a way of coping and dealing with pressure. It is maybe tempting to see medical students who for instance laugh at those studying other academic subjects as simply over-privileged and narrow-minded but maybe they are in fact looking for a way of justifying to themselves the sacrifices they are making as trainee professionals who take on a lot of responsibility at a young age? Whilst the satire that we describe that was directed at new management techniques in healthcare is clearly historically connected to the neoliberal reform of the NHS that gathered pace in the 1980s, it is also a coping mechanism. As we describe in the article, Betsy Morley, who initiated the Guys and St Thomas’ pantomime connected the satire it contained to the fact that she and her colleagues had been talking about how low staff morale was at the time. The thought of doing a pantomime and laughing at those shaping their professional experiences was described as cheering her and her colleagues up. Doctors who talked about the ‘mushroom’ technique of management (see our article for an explanation of what this involves!) were satirizing management culture but in so doing they probably also made themselves feel a bit better about the pressures they were under.

Is there anything you couldn’t address in the article that you’d like to share here?

Yes, on reflection, although we recognized that the importance of humor and laughter in our project may have been connected to the nature of the work that many of our participants were engaged in, we might have added that it is possibly also to do with the particular cultural place of humor in British life. It is telling for instance that the Chief Executive of Guy’s and St Thomas’ took on a leading role as a figure of fun in the pantomime that was set up after the institutions merged. And there are probably not too many countries in the world where a request from a conservative politician for the national broadcaster to play the country’s national anthem more often would lead to a major news program signing off with the Sex Pistols’ punk rock version of ‘God Save the Queen’ as BBC 2’s Newsnight did last year. Again, this points to the extent to which the global history of humor is in its infancy. The UK is certainly not unique in this respect but it would be interesting to know more about how the social role of humor has evolved across time and space. Oral historians can be at the heart of this project of writing the social history of humor– and we can enjoy the jokes while we work on it!

We hope you enjoyed this interview–and that you got a chuckle or two out of it. For more about oral history and emotion, check out the article in OHR 44.1, or our interview with Katie Holmes from May. Chime into the discussion in the comments below or on Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr, or Google+.

Featured image credit: “Laugh” by Thom Chandler, CC BY-SA 2.0 via Flickr.

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Are you ready for a summer of choral events?

Between June and September this year, there are so many choral festivals, competitions, and conferences taking place, that there’s no chance of having a quiet summer off. So take your pick from the list below, then pack your bags, your scores and your pencils, and get ready for a summer of singing! Here is a short overview of what’s on offer over the next few months.

Chorus America conference, Los Angeles, California, USA (21-24 June)

This major event in the US choral music calendar is attended by over 500 conductors, singers and suppliers to the choral industry and offers a great opportunity for personal development and networking through seminars, workshops, talks, reading sessions, and performances. OUP’s Choral Promotion Manager, Joel Rinsema, will be taking part in a session on ‘Making a Major Artistic Leadership Transition’.

Grand Prix of Nations and the European Choir Games, Riga, Latvia (16-23 July)

This July, over 25,000 singers from over 400 choirs will descend upon Riga (nicknamed the ‘Paris of the North’) for the Grand Prix of Nations and European Choir Games. The event will also be combined with the inaugural Eurovision Choir of the Year competition, for which John Rutter, as an Honourary Artistic President for Interkultur, is a jury panel member.

During the week of the Games, choirs from around the world can take part in coaching sessions, (including a 90 minute workshop with John Rutter), as well as giving non-competitive performances in front of an international panel of choral experts. Singers will also be able to join in with concerts all around the city, and the Closing Concert for the Festival that involves tens of thousands of singers.

Worcester Cathedral sunset, by Dave Grubb. CC-BY-2.0 via Flickr.

The Grand Prix of Nations offers choirs of any level and type (from children’s choir to folklore) an opportunity to take part in one of three different choir competitions, depending on their experience and skill.

Three Choirs Festival 2017, Worcester, England (22-29 July)

The Three Choirs Festival is an internationally renowned event that celebrated its three-hundred-year-anniversary in 2015, attracting singers, audiences and composers from around the world. The Festival includes choral and orchestral performances, recitals, masterclasses and talks, exhibitions, walks and theatre performances.

This short documentary gives an fascinating insight into the Festival’s history:

The Festival programme is available online.

11th World Symposium on Choral Music, Barcelona, Spain (22-29 July)

This is a major choral event that takes place once every three years, and brings together over 3000 professional and amateur singers and conductors as well as publishers, those who organise choral festival and competitions, and composers from around all around the world.

The week-long programme includes concerts, lectures, masterclasses and an exhibition showcasing a huge range of suppliers to the choral industry, including Oxford University Press. We’re excited that during the event, a new work by Bob Chilcott, God of the Open Air, will be premiered.

Association of British Choral Directors Conference, Glasgow, Scotland (27-29 August)

This year, ABCD goes to Glasgow, a UNESCO Creative City. This vibrant and inspirational event really is the highlight of the choral conductor’s calendar in the UK. Composers, conductors and choirs spend a weekend taking part in gala concerts, workshops, singing sessions, conducting masterclasses, plenary discussions and much more.

This year don’t miss the dinner and jazz session with OUP composer Bob Chilcott, or the various workshops with Will Todd exploring his approach to composition.

And if none of these events appeal to you, there are even more options to fill your choral summer:

Crescent City Choral Festival, New Orleans (20-29 June), which Bob Chilcott will be attending as guest artist/conductor.
One of the many regional meetings of the American Choral Director’s Association that take place over the summer. These include: Ohio (19-21 June); Oregon (25-26 June); Montana (29-30 June); Colorado (17-18 July) where you can meet Mack Wilberg; Arkansas (17-19 July); Washington State (19-21 July).
The Coralua Trondheim International Choir Festival, Norway (8-11 July) where Bob Chilcott will be running a series of workshops.

We hope to see you at one of these fantastic events this summer.

Featured image credit: Glasgow the Cathedral church, by Kamyq. CC0 Public Domain via Pixabay.

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10 facts about the animal kingdom

How many species of animals are there? What is the largest animal, and how are we related to rats? Peter Holland, the author of The Animal Kingdom: A Very Short Introduction, tells us 10 things everyone should know about the animal kingdom, and how we humans fit in.

An animal must have several characteristics to be an animal: it has a body built of many cells, it gets the energy necessary for life by eating other organisms, it has the ability to move, and can sense its environment.
Animals are a natural group, or clade, descended from a shared common ancestor. This clade is called the Animal Kingdom, or Metazoa.
Animals originated in the sea, but they have colonized fresh water, land, and air. Some, such as flukes and tapeworms, have invaded the bodies of other animals, while a few, such as dolphins, have returned to sea again.
Nobody knows how many species of insects exist; estimate range from a few million to over 30 million. At least 800,000 different species have been described and named formally.
The “big four” of the insect orders, accounting for over 80% of prescribed species are the beetles; butterflies and moths; bees, wasps, and ants; and flies.
Mostly, animals are divided into two groups: vertebrates and invertebrates. Millions of invertebrate species are described, whereas only around 50,000 different vertebrates are known.
Large size, efficient blood circulation, dynamic skeleton, intricate brain, protective skull, and elaborate sense organs are the features that set vertebrates apart.
There are only five living species of monotreme, or egg-laying, mammal: the platypus, and four types of spiny anteater. All other mammals are “therians” and have live birth.
Humans are opportunist omnivores, just like mice and rats. That means that they eat pretty much anything that is available to them at the time.
The largest and heaviest that has ever lived is the blue whale. It weighs 150 tons and can be up to 30 meters long  —  and it is still alive today.

Featured image credit: lion-portrait-animal by Sponchia. Public domain via Pixabay.

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Our oceans, our future [reading list]

The eight of June is World Oceans Day. Celebrated globally, this day is a chance to appreciate the ocean and learn about conservation efforts that help protect it. This year’s theme is “Our Oceans, Our Future”. In the spirit of moving towards a healthier future for our marine environment, we’ve put together a reading list and a video of some of our favorite books about the ocean and marine conservation.

“Understanding Social Conflict and Complexity in Marine Conservation” from Human-Wildlife Conflict: Complexity in the Marine Environment edited by Megan Draheim, Francine Madden, Julie-Beth McCarthy, and Chris Parsons

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) has classically been defined as a situation where wildlife impacts humans negatively, and where humans likewise negatively impact wildlife. However, there is growing consensus that the conflict between people about wildlife is as important as the conflict between people and wildlife. HWC impacts the willingness of an individual, a community, and wider society to support conservation programs in general. This book explores the complexity inherent in these situations, covering the theory, principles, and practical applications of HWC work.

Green Equilibrium: The Vital Balance of Humans and Nature by Christopher Wills

Traveling to many different ecosystems, from coral reefs to the high Himalayas, and drawing on his own on-the-ground research, Wills illuminates ecological laws in action. Perhaps most important, he introduces us to people, in many countries around the world, who are now using this new knowledge to help heal the planet.

“Managing complex systems to enhance sustainability” from Stressors in the Marine Environment: Physiological and ecological responses; societal implications edited by Martin Solan and Nia Whiteley

A multitude of direct and indirect human influences have significantly altered the environmental conditions, composition, and diversity of marine communities. Stressors in the Marine Environment summarizes the latest research in the physiological and ecological responses of marine species to a comprehensive range of marine stressors, while providing a perspective on future outcomes for some of the most pressing environmental issues facing society today.

Marine Pollution: What Everyone Needs to Know® by Judith S. Weis

Marine pollution occurs today in varied forms–chemical, industrial, and agricultural–and the sources of pollution are endless. Though marine pollution has long been a topic of concern, it has very recently exploded in environmental, economic, and political debate circles; scientists and non-scientists alike continue to be shocked and dismayed at the sheer diversity of water pollutants and the many ways they can come to harm our environment and our bodies.

Overfishing: What Everyone Needs to Know® by Ray Hilborn and With Ulrike Hilborn

Over the past 20 years, considerable public attention has been focused on the decline of marine fisheries, the sustainability of world fish production, and the impacts of fishing on marine ecosystems. This book provides a balanced explanation of the broad issues associated with overfishing and guides readers through the scientific, political, economic, and ethical issues associated with harvesting fish from the ocean.

Ocean Acidification edited by Jean-Pierre Gattuso and Lina Hansson

The consequences of ocean acidification are raising concerns for the biological, ecological, and biogeochemical health of the world’s oceans, as well as for the potential societal implications. Ocean Acidification synthesizes the consequences of ocean acidification, with the hopes of informing future marine management policies and research agendas.

Marine Ecosystems and Global Change edited by Manuel Barange, John G. Field, Roger P. Harris, et al.

Global environmental change (including climate change, biodiversity loss, changes in hydrological and biogeochemical cycles, and intensive exploitation of natural resources) is having significant impacts on the world’s oceans. This handbook advances knowledge of the structure and functioning of marine ecosystems, and their past, present, and future responses to physical and anthropogenic forcing.

Marine Biology: A Very Short Introduction by Philip V. Mladenov

The marine environment is the largest, most important, and yet most mysterious habitat on our planet. It contains more than 99% of the world’s living space, produces half of its oxygen, plays a critical role in regulating its climate, and supports a remarkably diverse and exquisitely adapted array of life forms. Biologist Philip Mladenov provides a comprehensive overview of marine biology, while looking at a number of factors that pose a significant threat to the marine environment.

The Sea Around Us by Rachel Carson

This classic work remains as fresh today as when it first appeared in 1951. Today, with the oceans endangered by the dumping of medical waste and ecological disasters such as the Exxon oil spill in Alaska, this illuminating volume provides a timely reminder of both the fragility and the importance of the ocean and the life that abounds within it. Anyone who loves the sea, or who is concerned about our natural environment, will want to read this classic work.

“Coral Reefs in the Modern World” from The Biology of Coral Reefs by Charles R.C. Sheppard, Simon K. Davy, and Graham M. Pilling

Coral reefs represent the most spectacular and diverse marine ecosystem on the planet as well as a critical source of income for millions of people. However, the combined effects of human activity have led to a rapid decline in the health of reefs worldwide, with many now facing complete destruction.

Coral Reefs: A Very Short Introduction by Charles Sheppard

In this VSI, Charles Sheppard provides an account of what coral reefs are, how they are formed, how they have evolved, and the biological lessons we can learn from them. Today, the vibrancy and diversity of these fascinating ecosystems are under threat from over exploitation and could face future extinction, unless our conservation efforts are stepped up in order to save them.

“The Marine Environment of North-West Europe” from Handbook of the Marine Fauna of North-West Europe edited by Peter J. Hayward and John S. Ryland

This authoritative guide enables accurate identification of the common components of the inshore benthic invertebrates of the British Isles and adjacent European coasts, as well as a substantial proportion of fish species.

Featured image credit: Beach by Pexels. CC0 Public Domain via Pixabay.

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Do you know the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright? [quiz]

Frank Lloyd Wright, born on 8 June 1867, was one of the most significant architects of the Western world in the first half of the 20th century. At the height of his prolific career, Wright’s works revealed the architect’s keen insight into American and European culture, as well as an appreciation for indigenous art and architecture and the history and styles of Japan. Wright was one of the few architects who was able to reinvent his style over several generations and remain at the forefront of the architectural world as an innovator and artist.

We’ve created a quiz to test your knowledge of Wright’s most famous designs, structures, and homes. How well do you know his bold, imaginative works?

Featured image credit: Fallingwater during dogwood and redbud time, by David Brossard, uploaded by GrapedApe. CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons .

Quiz image credit: Portrait of Frank Lloyd Wright by Al Ravenna, 1954, Library of Congress, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons .

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What’s in your eighteenth-century ornamental toolbox?

To many musicians, the word “ornament” brings a sense of foreboding dread. The mere thought of deciphering and interpreting the funny little signs and symbols into a line becomes paralyzing. But step back and look at the word: ornament.  What does it really mean?  Isn’t it simply a decoration? An addition to make something more…beautiful, lovely, exciting, adventuresome? C. P. E. Bach tells us that ornaments are equally important to correct fingering and proper performance (execution). Yet, ornamentation does not have to be complicated, and in all actuality, simpler is often better; a single, exquisitely placed gem sparkles the brightest.

Originally, ornaments served to merely extend the line on instruments that had a rapid tonal decay, such as the harpsichord and fortepiano. But they also provide spontaneity, creativity, variety, and expressivity. In the Classical Era style, the performer’s goal is to move the listener, to have something to say, and in that, ornaments play an important part. Deciding on which ornament to use and how often to use ornamentation calls for good taste which can be cultivated through listening to many performances of esteemed fortepianists such as Malcolm Bilson and Tom Beghin.

Ornamentation notation was not standardized in the eighteenth century. Some ornaments were absorbed into the texture of the music while many were indicated as symbols or small notes in varying rhythms such as an eighth, sixteenth, or thirty-second note(s), with or without a slash. The differences in size of notes or numbers of flags have no bearing on the length of the notes but are determined by the proportioned relationship to the principal note and the affekt (mood or emotion) of the piece.

On or before the beat? On or above the main note? Oftentimes one hears that Classical Era ornaments are all to begin on the beat and above the main note. Historical perspective is not conclusive in this matter. Period literature points to harmony and voice leading as the main determining factor and suggests we go to the dissonance to highlight the affekt.

Period practices recommend that ornaments are to be played in the context of the immediate key of the section, sometimes notated by the composer. Generally speaking, ornaments are to begin on the beat with the upper auxiliary. C. P. E. Bach suggests that each excerpt be played initially without ornamentation to clarify melodic direction and appropriate voice leading, making appropriate choices more obvious. If one cannot execute an ornament, it is better to reduce the number of rotations or leave it out completely than to stumble along and destroy the integrity of the excerpt.

Executing ornaments can go from foreboding dread to joyful anticipation. The three simplest and most commonly used ornaments are the appoggiatura, the turn, and the trill. The appoggiatura is one of the “must haves” in the Classical Era. In his Klavierschule, Türk devotes an entire chapter to this ornament. He explains that it comes from appoggiato, which means “actually: leaning, supported, and in music; sustained.”i It serves as the basis for the turn and the trill, both of which grow out of or are an extension of the appoggiatura. It enhances the melody and harmony and provides an accented dissonance. The appoggiatura is never approached in a legato fashion. There is always space in time directly before the appoggiatura, called an articulated silence. It is louder than, and must be slurred to the following note, whether notated as such or not. They are oftentimes notated as little notes to differentiate between a regular sixteenth-note run and should be leaned into, usually with an agogic accent. The length of the appoggiatura is determined by affekt, tempo, and where it appears in the line.

Example 1: Mozart, Piano Sonata, KV 311/I, mm. 1-4 (Henle) 

https://blog.oup.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Audio_Example_1_10.mp3

 

 

The turn is nothing more than a short trill with only one rotation. It is a utilitarian ornament: it may occur on any beat, on ascending and descending notes, in skips or stepwise progressions, on repeated notes, on unprepared notes, and on or after an appoggiatura. The interval between the outer notes usually encompasses a minor third. Execution and timing depend largely on affekt, rhythmic arrangement on context. If there is enough time, the turn should be on the beat and allow a pause on the main note.

Example 2: Beethoven, Bagatelle, Op. 119, No. 1, mm. 9-12 (Henle) 

 

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C. P. E. Bach believes the trill is the most important ornament. Execution of the trill varies according to its function within context. The speed of the oscillations adjusts to the tempo and expression of the passage. It typically lasts for the full value of the main note. To execute a long trill, the performer may start somewhat slowly and accelerate. The predominant view is that the starting note of the trill is the upper auxiliary. The suffix is frequently written out in the form of a turn ending. If a termination is not indicated, the performer is expected to add one where it would fit to effect a smooth transition from the trill to the melodic line.

Example 3: Beethoven, Bagatelle, Op. 119, No. 3, mm. 17-24 (Henle) 

 

https://blog.oup.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Audio_Example_3_10.mp3

 

It’s time to open those scores, discover the ornaments, and see how your playing may be transformed by application of these basic tenets. Visit resource books and add more tools to your ornamental toolbox. The possibilities are endless!

Featured image: “ Partitura” by Alberto R. Salas. CC BY-SA 2.0 via Flickr.

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The real thing: the thrills of inauthentic literature

How much would you be prepared to pay for a library of forged books? In 2011, the Sheridan Libraries of Johns Hopkins University acquired (at an undisclosed price) the so-called ‘Bibliotheca Fictiva’, one of the largest collections of forged books and documents, which includes, among other gems (such as a ‘Letter from Heaven’ supposedly penned by Jesus Christ), ‘eyewitness’ accounts of the Fall of Troy.

Such fictitious accounts were very popular in the Middle Ages, and two fabricated histories in particular —the Chronicle of the Trojan War by ‘Dictys of Crete’ and the History of the Fall of Troy by ‘Dares of Phrygia’— are ultimately at the root of the retellings of the Trojan War one finds in, among others, Chaucer’s and Shakespeare’s Troilus and Cressida. These make-believe accounts may have started life as little more than learned jeux d’esprit, to be appreciated by erudite audiences as bold and creative ‘alternatives’ to canonical literature. Still, they ended up virtually supplanting Homer, in the Medieval West, as authorities on the Trojan War.

Not all ancient forgeries were harmless amusements, however. At the time of the Hellenistic kingdoms (late 4th to late 1st century BCE), when the Ptolemaic and the Attalid kings were vying for the acquisition of books for the libraries of Alexandria and Pergamum respectively, avaricious individuals reportedly tried to pass off forged works as genuine pieces by renowned authors (such as Aristotle). Several centuries later, the infamous ‘Donation of Constantine’, an 8th-century CE forgery, was repeatedly used to legitimise the Catholic Church’s claims to worldly power by recording the supposed donation, by the 4th-century Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, of the entire Western Roman Empire to Pope Sylvester I. (The forgery was exposed by the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla in 1440).

‘Sylvester I and Constantine’, San Silvestro Chapel at Santi Quattro Coronati, Rome (1247), Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.

And only a five years ago, short-lived excitement was stirred up by the so-called ‘Gospel of Jesus’ Wife’, a papyrus scrap in the Coptic language purportedly referring to Jesus having a wife, and authenticated by leading authorities as belonging to the 4th century CE. It did not take long, however, for the papyrus to be revealed as a forgery, and not a particularly well-done one at that—despite having fetched, at one point, a $50,000 offer from a dealer.

Greed for money or for fame and privilege (or both), then, is a major motive behind literary forgery, both in antiquity and nowadays. Often, however, inauthentic texts are the end-product of motives and factors more complex than covetousness. Before the spread of literacy, and of the culture of the book in particular, pseudepigraphic literature was not necessarily part of an intention to deceive. In ancient cultures, in which notions of authorship and authority were much more fluid and malleable than in our own copyright-dominated times, it was relatively easy to misattribute literary works.

For example, epic poems other than the Iliad and the Odyssey tended, unsurprisingly, to gravitate around the illustrious name of Homer, but this did not always block out an awareness of other potential authors. In this case, uncertain or contested authorship is rather a reflection of the oral, traditional and impersonal nature of early epic poetry, and/or of different (and often antagonistic) guilds of epic bards.

‘Frontispiece and Titlepage of a 1752 edition of Alexander’s Pope’s translation of The Odyssey’ (1752), from the Private Collection of S. Whitehead, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.

In later times, works by Plato’s disciples or imitators (such as the little-known Axiochus or Clitopho) entered the Platonic corpus not as forgeries intended to deceive but rather as literary imitations or even pastiches.

The term ‘pastiche’ is partly appropriate also for another famous ancient pseudepigraphon, the tragedy of Rhesus, which is traditionally (and falsely) attributed to Euripides, and may have entered the Euripidean corpus because of its homonymy with Euripides’ genuine Rhesus, a work probably lost at a relatively early age. The extant Rhesus contains several passages that are little more than a potpourri of purple patches picked out from fifth-century tragedies. The unknown author’s purpose may have been to tickle his audience’s vanity by setting them up as consumers of high-quality theatre — or at least of theatre that was sufficiently redolent of the style of the old masters for some of their canonical prestige to rub off on their spurious descendant.

In a world of ‘alternative facts’, interest in inauthentic (or should one now say ‘post-factual’?) literature may look like an idle pastime at best, a reflex of reactionary politics at worst. But it need be neither. Serious study of literary inauthenticity can be an important historical tool illuminating assumptions, ideologies, and driving forces behind our (and our predecessors’) engagement with notions of canonicity and authority.

Featured image credit: ‘Old Books’ by DKrue, CC0 Public Domain via Pixabay .

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English idioms and The British Apollo

In 1708, London witnessed the appearance of The British Apollo, or Curious Amusements for the INGENIOUS. To which are Added the most Material Occurrences Foreign and Domestick. Perform’d by a Society of GENTLEMEN. VOL. I. Printed for the Authors, by F. Mayo, at the Printing-Press, against Water-Lane in Fleet-Street.

This is Apollo, though not the British one.

As far as I know, no Volume 2 followed this remarkable publication. Volume 1 ran into several editions and is now available on the Internet. Not being a specialist in the history of English journalism, I came across this remarkable book by chance, through a reference in a footnote. (But such is the way of all scholarly flesh.) One cannot imagine a more unusual product by a society of gentlemen. In a way, The British Apollo looks like a forerunner of Notes and Queries (launched in 1849): it contains questions and answers, but the answers are provided by anonymous authors, while in Notes and Queries, all contributions are signed, though often by initials or fanciful names. The pages in the Apollo are large and unnumbered.

In the beginning, one believes that the whole is a joke: the pompous or humorous forms of address, versified questions, and facetious (occasionally also versified) answers, but it soon becomes clear that most letters, even when silly, were written in earnest, that the numerous correspondents interested in theology received professional responses, and that this mixed bag of “curious amusements” is not nonsense. As always, some questions dealt with the origin of popular sayings. I cannot do better than quote some of them, with the spelling and punctuation of the original kept intact. English proverbs and idioms were collected long before 1708, but I doubt that earlier records of popular opinions appeared in any periodical. What follows will appeal to the readers fond of antiquarian dust.

Q. From whence did that saying arise, of 9 Taylors making a Man? (I decided to reproduce this answer because my post on 6 April 2016 was devoted to this saying. There I quoted only part of what will appear below. At that time, I copied the passage from Notes and Queries and dated it to 1726. However, 1726 is the year of the third edition of The British Apollo. Now I am copying from the original.)

Even one bespoke tailor can make a man.

A. It happened (‘tis no great Matter in what Year) that eight Taylors having finish’d considerable Pieces of Work at a certain Person of Quality’s House (whose Name Authors have thought fit to conceal) and receiving all the Money due for the same; a Virago Servant Maid of the House; observing them to be, but Slender-built Animals, and in their Mathematinal [sic] Postures on their Shop-board, appearing but so many Pieces of Men, resolved to encounter and Pillage them on the Road; The better to compass her design, she procur’d a very Terrible, Great Black Pudden; which (having waylaid them) She Presented at the Breast of the foremost; They mistaking the Prop of Life for an Instrument of Death at least for a Blunderbuss, readily yielded up their Money; but she not contented with that, feverishly disciplined them with a Cudgel she carry’d in th’ other Hand, all which they bore with a Philosophical Resignation. Thus, eight, not being able to deal with one Woman, by consequence could not make a Man, on which Account a Ninth is added. ‘Tis the Opinion of our curious Virtuoso’s, that this want of Courage ariseth from their immoderate eating of cucumbers, which too much refrigerates their Blood; However, to their Eternal Honour be it spoke of Canables, to whose Assaults they are often subject, not fictitious, but real Man-eaters, and that with a Lance, but two Inches long, nay and altho’ they go arm’d no further than their Middle-Finger.

Q. What is the meaning of the Phrase, to break Priscian’s head, and whence came the Expression?

A. Priscian was a learned Grammarian, who flourished at Constantinople in the Year 525, he was so Accurate in Grammar, that to speak false Latin was as Ungrateful to him as to break his Head. And indeed it is even Now customary with Many, when very much offended at any proceedings of Another, to cry out, I had rather, you had broke my Head. [More or less the same explanation turns up in Brewer and in later books.]

The next idiom has also appeared in this blog (20 May 2015).

Q. Why, when any thing is Burnt to, it is said the Bishop’s foot has been in it?

A. We presume ‘tis is a proverb that took its Origin from the unhappy Times when every thing that went wrong, was thought to have been spoiled by the Bishops.

Q. Gentlemen, I have a long while desired to know the Original of this Proverb, viz. Like Hunt’s Dog, neither go to Church nor stay at home, and could think of none fitter to resolve this Question than the BRITISH APOLLO. Your speedy Answer (since I am going into the Country) will very much Oblige Yours, &c. [This query provoked the longest answer on a linguistic topic.]

A. One HUNT, a Labouring Man, at a small Town in Shropshire, kept a Mastiff, who was very fond of following his Master up and down. Now HUNT was a Religious Man, and every Sunday in the afternoon went to Church, with all his family, and lock’d his Mastiff in the House till he came back again.

This is presumably Mr. Hunt’s disgruntled dog.

The Dog, it seems, unwilling to be left alone complain’d in melancholy Notes, of such a dismal sound, That all the Village was disturb’d by his incessant howling; This made HUNT resolve to take his  Dog to Church next Sunday.

The Dog, however, who perhaps had formerly been beaten by the Sexton for disturbing the Congregation, cou’d be brought no further than the Church Door, for there he hung behind, and tug’d the String, by which the Master held him. HUNT grew angry at the obstinacy of his Mastiff, and after having beat him soundly, and let him go, and with uplifted hands and Zealous Accent, cried, half- weeping, Oh! what will this world come to? my very Dogs have learned to practice wickedness, and are neither contented to go to Church, or stay at home, Good Lord, deliver us. The People, pleased to see a Man so serious upon such an occasion, laugh’d Poor HUNT and his dog into a common proverb.

And here is something for a final flourish.

Q. Why is the Female Sex attributed to a ship?

Is this why a ship is referred to as she?

A. Because as Ship Carries Burdens, and therefore resembles a Pregnant Woman. And this resemblance is more remarkable with regards to the Modern dress, since the sails of a Ship are somewhat agreeable to a Woman’s Toppings. And perhaps the Author of this Denomination might design it as a satyr upon the sex, as thinking, that a wavering Ship, that is toss’d up and down by every wind, was no unsuitable Emblem of their reputed Inconstancy.

Image credits: (1) “Michelangelo, apollino 01” from Umberto Baldini, Michelangelo scultore, Rizzoli, Milano 1973, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. (2) “Dog spring animal beast” by 947051, Public Domain via Pixabay. (3) “A Splendid Spread” by George Cruikshank, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. (4 and Featured Image) “Sailing Ship on Flensborg Fjord” by Elgaard, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

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Pound foolish–but not penny wise

The Trump Administration released its $4 trillion budget on 23 May. Like the president himself, the budget promises a lot, delivers very little, and is full of misinformation.

The administration promises to eliminate the federal government’s budget deficit within 10 years, while at the same time offering tax cuts to the wealthiest Americans. To get a sense of the scale of this task, consider the current fiscal position of the US government. In 2016, the federal government had expenditures of about $3.85 trillion and took in revenues of about $3.27 trillion, resulting in a budget deficit of just under $600 billion.

Eliminating this deficit by belt-tightening is not nearly as simple as slashing spending by $600 billion, or by about 15% across the board, because some elements of the budget cannot be so easily cut. For example, interest on the federal government debt (which was at $241 billion in 2016) must be paid, despite Trump’s suggestion that it was open to negotiation. Failure to do so would lead to a major financial crisis. We should also assume that the government would not renege on its obligation to pay military and civilian pensions ($164 billion). This leaves two sources for cuts, “mandatory outlays,” spending that is already authorized under current law, and “discretionary outlays,” which includes everything else.

Mandatory outlays include Social Security ($910 billion in 2016), Medicare, Medicaid, and other health care programs ($1.1 trillion), earned income and child care tax credits, unemployment compensation, and other income security programs ($304 billion). Taken together, these payments constitute more than two thirds of the federal government’s budget. Trump pledged not to cut Social Security in 2015, but the current plan does just that by cutting Social Security Disability Insurance by 2%. Other proposed cuts include those to the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, or food stamps, cut by 29%), Children’s Health Insurance Program (19%), Medicaid (17%), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (13%), and Unemployment Insurance (12%). These cuts will fall disproportionately on poorer Americans.

The remainder of the budget consists of discretionary spending, and is roughly evenly split between the military and all non-military functions of the federal government, including everything from courts and the FBI, to meat inspectors and US embassies abroad. Given the dangerous state of the world, defense spending is unlikely to be cut—in fact, the budget proposes a substantial increase in military spending. Hence, the weight of the Administration’s budget-cutting plans falls primarily on non-defense discretionary spending.

2018 FY White House Budget Proposal by White House. Public domain via Wikimedia Commons.

The largest percentage hits to discretionary spending are the State Department (33%) and the Environmental Protection Agency (31%), followed by the Departments of Agriculture (21%), Labor (21%), Health and Human Services (18%), Commerce (16%), Education (14%), and Housing and Urban Development (13%). Many of these cuts are counterproductive.

As a former State Department employee, I can certainly attest that not all moneys directed to the State Department were well spent back in my day. I wasted a great deal of time making sure that the graphs for the assistant secretary were made with the correct color palate, and no doubt photocopied a bit too much and used too many staples. Nonetheless, State provides valuable eyes and ears around the world. And, according to 120 retired generals and admirals, spending on foreign aid now can help prevent the need for military intervention later.

Cutting the EPA is another example of short-sighted budgetary policy. Denying that climate change and air, water, and land pollution will have serious effects on our health as well as the health of our children and grandchildren is criminally negligent. Don’t believe me? Read the assessment of Christine Todd Whitman, the EPA administrator for the noted tree-hugger George W. Bush.

Finally, it is worth noting the lie at the center of the Trump Administration’s budget.

All budgets must make assumptions about future economic performance. When the economy grows rapidly, the government typically spends less on unemployment compensation and other social programs and collects more taxes, making the deficit look smaller; when the economy stumbles, the opposite occurs. Since budgets anticipate tax and spending patterns ten years into the future, assumptions about economic growth can have a large impact on government spending plans. All presidents try to take a somewhat optimistic view of future economic growth, since a growing economy has more money to spend on a president’s pet projects and reduced pressure to curtail spending.

The current US budget assumes economic growth of 3% per year, which is about as far away from the less than 2% consensus among economic professionals as the president’s claims of inauguration attendance were from objective reports from the National Park service.

If enacted, the Trump budget would reduce services to the poor and middle class—many of whom voted for him—and cut taxes for the wealthy. It will hamper out long-term growth prospects and it certainly won’t lead to a balanced budget.

Trump’s budget is not penny wise and pound foolish. It’s just plain foolish.

Featured image credit: money change finance monedas by titidianita. Public domain via Pixabay.

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How well do you know Jane Austen’s novels? [quiz]

Jane Austen is one of the best known and most celebrated authors of British literature, inspiring legions of fans across the globe. Her work was generally well-received upon publication, with several high profile reviewers, but it was not immensely popular. Sir Walter Scott in particular praised Austen’s intriguing characters and sense of realism. Another favourable review (commonly attributed to Richard Whately) drew lasting comparisons with giants such as Homer and Shakespeare.

Today, Austen is more popular than ever, with fans often self-opprobriously identifying as ‘Janeites.’ This cultural movement could even be said to be the very first literary ‘subculture’, inspiring societies, events, and scholarship around the globe. With this popularity in mind, we thought it was a good time to test your knowledge of Jane Austen’s novels and characters — with a quiz based on the author’s lesser-known quotations. How well do you really know Austen’s writings?

Featured and quiz image credit: ‘Two Strings To Her Bow’ by John Pettie (1882). Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons .

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