Walter Coffey's Blog, page 188

The Garfield Assassination

The politically motivated shooting of President James A. Garfield in 1881 paved the way for much needed government reform.

Garfield’s assailant was Charles Guiteau, a mental defective who felt betrayed for not being awarded a government job after campaigning for Garfield’s election. Believing that Vice President Chester A. Arthur was more politically agreeable to his agenda, Guiteau decided to personally replace Garfield with Arthur.

Garfield Opposes the Stalwarts

Both Guiteau and Arthur were “Stalwarts,” or the radical wing of the Republican Party. The Stalwarts opposed the “Half-Breeds,” which were more moderate Republicans. Garfield was a Half-Breed who sought to unite the two factions with policies that shared common ground. But when he refused to appoint Stalwarts to key federal jobs, he angered many politicians. Among them was influential Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York.

Conkling led the Stalwarts in Congress, and he expected Garfield to reward him with federal jobs since Conkling had helped deliver New York’s crucial electoral votes in the presidential election. Garfield instead appointed one of Conkling’s political enemies as New York City customs collector, which controlled most of the country’s import revenue.

Conkling retaliated by urging fellow senators to vote down Garfield’s appointments. When this failed, Conkling resigned from the Senate in protest, confident the New York legislature and his fellow Stalwarts would back him. But this backfired when most Stalwarts in Congress sided with Garfield. This only made diehard Stalwarts like Charles Guiteau angrier.

At that time, federal jobs were often awarded by “patronage,” or having the right connection, rather than merit. It was an unwritten rule that the president was required to share the spoils of his office by granting jobs to those who did political favors for him, such as helping him get elected. Many expected to be rewarded with such jobs, and when it became apparent that Guiteau was being shut out of the “spoils system,” he took matters into his own hands.

Guiteau Shoots Garfield

On July 2, Garfield entered the Sixth Street Station of the Baltimore & Potomac Railroad in Washington, en route to a summer vacation. Garfield had no protection, as no president except Abraham Lincoln had ever used security before. Guiteau approached the president from behind and fired two shots. The first grazed Garfield’s arm and shoulder, and the second lodged in his back, barely missing the spinal cord.

Guiteau tried hurrying out of the station, but he was apprehended by police officer Patrick Kearney. After fending off a growing mob calling for Guiteau’s lynching, Kearney brought the assailant to a nearby police station. He confessed to the crime and declared, “I am a Stalwart of the Stalwarts. Arthur is president now!”

Meanwhile, Garfield was taken to the White House where doctors tried finding the bullet in his back. With no x-ray technology, they could only guess where it was, so they dug and probed for several weeks without anesthesia. They then tried using a primitive metal detector invented by Alexander Graham Bell to find the bullet, but the device would not work because of the metal springs in Garfield’s bed.

The doctors finally resolved that they could only hope the wound would heal on its own. In the meantime, they tried making Garfield as comfortable as possible in the oppressive summer heat of Washington. Navy engineers loaded ice into vents in Garfield’s sickroom and pumped air over the ice through cotton filters. This was the first practical air conditioning system, and it kept the room at a cool 77 degrees. Although doctors still could not locate the bullet, Garfield’s condition seemed to be improving.

Garfield Lingers

President Garfield’s improvement proved temporary. His body began deteriorating from starvation and infection due to doctors probing for the bullet with dirty hands. He lingered for two months before he was moved to his seaside home in New Jersey. Doctors hoped that leaving swampy Washington and taking in the ocean air would help. But by that time, Garfield had withered from 210 to 130 pounds.

At 10:35 p.m. on September 19, Garfield died at his New Jersey home. An autopsy revealed the bullet was actually lodged in his pancreas after hitting his spine, nearly a foot away from where doctors believed it was. Also revealed was that the original gunshot wound had healed; Garfield officially died from blood poisoning caused by constant probing without sterilization.

The country had essentially functioned without a president for over two months. From the time of his shooting until his death, Garfield’s only official presidential act was signing an extradition paper.

Political Reform

President Garfield’s death sparked the greatest outpouring of national grief up to that time. Garfield was mourned more than Lincoln, mainly because Garfield was relatively popular in both North and South. Homes, businesses, and government buildings were draped in black. After about 150,000 mourners paid their last respects, Garfield was laid to rest in Cleveland.

One of the most sensational trials of the 19th century ended with the hanging of Charles Guiteau. He had pleaded insanity and argued that the doctors, not his bullet, had killed Garfield. Guiteau had shot the president in an effort to return the Stalwarts to political power. Ironically, his act produced the opposite effect.

Garfield was succeeded by Chester Arthur, and being a Stalwart, he was expected to reverse many of Garfield’s appointments to appease his political cronies. However, the Stalwarts were bitterly denounced in the press for supposedly encouraging the toxic atmosphere that produced a fanatic like Guiteau, and thus Arthur decided it was politically expedient to avoid Stalwart influence.

To the Stalwarts’ dismay, Arthur avoided political cronyism and vetoed pork-barrel legislation. Most importantly, Arthur signed the historic Pendleton Civil Service Act, which required federal jobs to be filled by merit instead of patronage, a standard that still exists today. That it took an assassination to reform the federal government was tragic.

The Civil War This Week: May 6-12, 1863

Wednesday, May 6

In Virginia, General Robert E. Lee’s Confederate Army of Northern Virginia advanced into the Wilderness, but the opposing Federal Army of the Potomac had already withdrawn, ending the Battle of Chancellorsville. General A.P. Hill assumed command of the Confederate Second Corps, replacing the wounded General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson.

[image error]

Confederate General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson

Jackson was brought to a farmhouse south of Fredericksburg to recuperate from wounds suffered during the Battle of Chancellorsville. After being shot in the left arm and hand on May 2, Jackson had his arm amputated below the shoulder.

In Ohio, a military tribunal convicted former Congressman Clement Vallandigham of expressing treasonable sympathies and disloyal utterances aimed at “weakening the power of the Government (to put down) an unlawful rebellion.” Vallandigham was sentenced to two years in a military prison. Such a harsh punishment sparked protests throughout the North, as many argued that Vallandigham had merely exercised his right to free speech by speaking out against the war. President Abraham Lincoln publicly supported Vallandigham’s arrest, but he knew the sentence would have political consequences.

In Louisiana, a Federal naval flotilla under Admiral David D. Porter occupied Alexandria. In Tennessee, a group of disloyal Federal citizens were sent into Confederate lines at Nashville. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, western Virginia, and Missouri.

Thursday, May 7

In Mississippi, General William T. Sherman’s Federals joined Ulysses S. Grant’s main force south of Vicksburg. The large Federal army began advancing toward the railroad linking Vicksburg and the state capital of Jackson. Confederate President Jefferson Davis wired General John Pemberton, commanding at Vicksburg, “Am anxiously expecting further information of your active operations… To hold both Vicksburg and Port Hudson is necessary to our connection with Trans-Mississippi. You may expect whatever it is in my power to do for your aid.”

Confederate General Earl Van Dorn was assassinated by Dr. George Peters in Spring Hill, Tennessee after rumors had circulated that Van Dorn had a “liaison” with Peters’s wife. Most fellow officers acknowledged that Van Dorn was a notorious ladies’ man, and thus his murder came as no surprise.

In Virginia, President Lincoln and General-in-Chief Henry Halleck met with General Joseph Hooker at his Army of the Potomac headquarters. Hooker proposed an immediate Federal offensive to avenge his army’s fiasco at Chancellorsville, but Lincoln, worried that troop morale could be destroyed with another failure, instructed Hooker to wait.

Friday, May 8

President Lincoln issued a proclamation stating that immigrants who had declared an intent to become U.S. citizens would not be exempted from military service; this sought to offset the wave of people claiming to be aliens to avoid the impending draft.

Saturday, May 9

Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston was ordered to assume command of all troops in Mississippi. Ulysses S. Grant’s Federals skirmished near Utica. Other skirmishing occurred in Louisiana, Missouri, and Tennessee.

Sunday, May 10

“Stonewall” Jackson died in Virginia. Jackson had contracted pneumonia while recovering from battle wounds, and it could not be medically treated. When told by his wife that he would not survive the day, Jackson said, “Very good, very good. It is the Lord’s Day; my wish is fulfilled. I have always desired to die on Sunday.” Confederate General Robert E. Lee issued General Order No. 61: “With deep regret the commanding general announces the death of Lieutenant General T.J. Jackson… Let his officers and soldiers emulate his invincible determination to do everything in the defense of our loved Country.”

Jackson lay in state in the Confederate Capitol as people throughout the South mourned the loss of one of the Confederacy’s greatest leaders. He was buried in Lexington, where he had taught at the Virginia Military Institute before the war.

Skirmishing occurred in Louisiana and Kentucky.

Monday, May 11

President Lincoln refused to accept the resignation of Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase; Chase had threatened to resign due to a disagreement with Lincoln over the appointment of an official. Skirmishing occurred in Mississippi, Virginia, and Tennessee.

Tuesday, May 12

In Mississippi, a division of Ulysses S. Grant’s army was attacked by Confederates at Raymond. After several hours of fighting, the outnumbered Confederates withdrew toward Jackson; each side suffered about 500 casualties. This and other skirmishes prompted Grant to advance on Jackson before attacking Vicksburg. Meanwhile, Joseph E. Johnston struggled to give aid to John Pemberton’s Confederates in Vicksburg.

General Simon B. Buckner assumed command of the Confederate Department of East Tennessee. Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee, Missouri, and Virginia.

Primary source: The Civil War Day by Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971)

The Real Story of Lusitania

Lusitania was a famous British passenger vessel. Her sinking in May 1915 shocked the world, especially coming so close after the tragic sinking of Titanic three years before. But unlike Titanic, Lusitania was sunk by a German torpedo at a time when Great Britain was at war with Germany. And contrary to mainstream history books, Lusitania was not an innocent ship that was destroyed by vengeful Germans.

Violating the Rules of War

The conflict that became known as World War I had begun in 1914. That year, the British declared the North Sea (which Germany needed for supplies) to be a war zone. British ships intercepted cargo bound for Germany and mined the main approaches to German ports. In this way, the British deliberately tried starving German civilians into submission with a “hunger blockade.” Targeting civilians rather than enemy combatants violated international law.

Since the German High Seas Fleet could not match the strength of the British Royal Navy, they countered with submarines called U-boats, which attacked ships carrying war supplies to Britain and its allies. German commanders were ordered not to attack neutral shipping, but the British often violated neutrality laws by bearing fraudulent neutral flags on their ships to thwart the U-boat attacks.

Germany responded by declaring the waters around the Britain and Ireland a war zone. Enemy merchant ships in the war zone were subject to immediate attack. However, neutral ships were also at risk because of Britain’s policy of placing false neutral flags on ships carrying war supplies.

Under international law, a warring ship had to give ample warning to an enemy merchant vessel before attacking. However, Britain had ordered its merchant ships to attack any U-boat on sight. Since U-boats were much smaller, they could be easily destroyed without the element of surprise. Moreover, the international law had been written a decade earlier, before technology such as submarines and radios had ever been used in warfare.

Lusitania the Warship

At the outset of the war, Britain had designated Lusitania as an “AMC” (Armed Merchant Cruiser), and although she was never fitted with guns, she was officially a warship. Lusitania regularly carried war supplies from the U.S. to Britain on her luxurious passenger runs across the Atlantic.

The U.S. had declared neutrality in the war, and by supplying Britain and its allies with small-caliber arms only, the U.S. remained within the neutral rules. Even so, the Germans could not be expected to consider the U.S. a true neutral when it was routinely shipping war supplies to Britain and its allies.

In April 1915, Lusitania docked in New York and prepared for another run back to Liverpool. The German Embassy in the U.S. issued several warnings in newspapers throughout New York and the U.S. not to travel on Lusitania’s upcoming voyage.

Passenger fears were calmed by assurances that German U-boats had never successfully attacked a ship that traveled as fast as Lusitania. Also not publicly disclosed was the fact that Lusitania’s former captain, Daniel Dow, had been ordered to take leave due to stress. Dow had repeatedly urged the British Admiralty to revoke Lusitania’s status as an AMC because this made her a prime target for German U-boats.

Entering the War Zone

Lusitania left New York on May 1 carrying 1,959 passengers, including 159 Americans. Unbeknownst to most passengers, Lusitania also carried 4,927 boxes of rifle cartridges (holding 1,000 rounds each), 1,250 cases of shrapnel, and 2,000 cases of small arms ammunition. It remains uncertain whether the U.S. violated neutrality laws by loading illegal munitions in Lusitania’s hold.

That same morning, German Count Johann von Bernstorff issued an alert that British vessels were “liable to destruction” and cautioned that travelers entering the war zone “on ships of Great Britain and her allies do so at their own risk.”

As Lusitania entered the war zone, the British were receiving reports that the German U-boat U-20 had either hit or sunk several vessels in the region. U-20 approached Lusitania off the Irish coast on the afternoon of May 7. The German commander, Captain Walter Schwieger, was aware of Britain’s naval policy of ramming U-boats on sight. He preemptively fired one torpedo that struck Lusitania on the starboard (right) side.

The Tragic Destruction

Immediately after the first explosion from the torpedo, a second explosion rocked Lusitania. The ship quickly began listing, and most of the lifeboats could not be launched. The ship sank within 18 minutes. Of the 1,959 people on board, 1,195 died and 764 were rescued. Of those who died, 128 were Americans.

The second explosion likely destroyed the ship, but it is still unclear what caused that second blast. Many have asserted that the second explosion was caused by the torpedo detonating hidden munitions that should not have been on board.

The German government responded that warnings had been issued and Lusitania, having carried war supplies into the war zone, was subject to attack. The Kolnische Volkszeitung stated: “The English wish to abandon the German people to death by starvation. We are more humane. We simply sank an English ship with passengers who, at their own risk and responsibility, entered the zone of operations.”

Nevertheless, Lusitania’s sinking sparked worldwide outrage. The New York Herald referred to the sinking of Lusitania as “wholesale murder,” and the New York Times compared the Germans to “savages drunk with blood.” The British hoped this incident would bring the U.S. into the war, which was their goal from the outset. However, few people in the U.S. actually called for going to war over the sinking of Lusitania.

Feigning Diplomacy

President Woodrow Wilson consulted with his cabinet regarding the disaster. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan proposed a compromise: Britain would lift the hunger blockade and remove mines in the North Sea, while Germany would minimize the U-boat campaign. The Germans expressed willingness to accept this, but the British refused.

Wilson decided to appease Britain by sending a stern message to Germany demanding an apology for Lusitania, compensation for U.S. victims, and a promise to avoid similar occurrences in the future. Wilson essentially demanded that the Germans respect the right of U.S. citizens to travel on enemy ships that carried war supplies intended to defeat Germany. No other “neutral” nation had ever made such a demand.

Bryan, noting Britain’s illegal hunger blockade, asked, “Why be shocked by the drowning of a few people, if there is to be no objection to starving a nation?” After denouncing Wilson’s hypocrisy in warning Germany while doing nothing to stop Britain’s harassment of U.S. shipping (which violated neutrality laws), Bryan resigned in protest. His replacement was Robert Lansing, a pro-British diplomat who flouted U.S. neutrality by openly working with Britain against Germany in the war.

Lessons from Lusitania

The U.S. did not enter the war until April 1917, nearly two years after the sinking of Lusitania. British and U.S. inquiries into Lusitania’s destruction predictably concluded that Germany was completely responsible for the tragedy. The Germans were defeated in 1918, and history books often disregard the losing side of wars. Thus, texts have cited the sensational sinking of an innocent luxury liner as the incident that put the U.S. on the path to World War I.

But there is no doubt that both Britain and the U.S. violated international law both before and after Lusitania’s destruction. And as one historian more accurately noted: “With the sanction of the British Government, the Cunard Line (which owned Lusitania) was selling people passages through a declared war zone, under due notice that its ships were subject to being sunk on sight by a power which had demonstrated its ability and determination to do so.”

The Civil War This Week: Apr 29-May 5, 1863

Wednesday, April 29

In Virginia, a major part of General Joseph Hooker’s Federal Army of the Potomac crossed the Rappahannock River at Kelly’s and U.S. fords and moved into the Wilderness. This was part of Hooker’s plan to force General Robert E. Lee’s Confederates out of their impregnable positions in Fredericksburg and give battle. To further prod Lee, Hooker sent Federal cavalry under General George Stoneman between Lee and Richmond to catch the Confederates in a pincers movement.

On the Mississippi River, Admiral David D. Porter’s Federal naval fleet began shuttling General Ulysses S. Grant’s troops across the river. This was part of Grant’s plan to march southward past Vicksburg on the river’s west bank, then recross the river and attack the city from behind.

A Federal diversionary force under Colonel Benjamin Grierson continued raiding Mississippi, skirmishing at Brookhaven. In Missouri, General John S. Marmaduke’s Confederates skirmished at Castor River.

Thursday, April 30

In Virginia, Joseph Hooker established headquarters at Chancellorsville, a small village in the Wilderness. Hooker did not order an attack; rather, he waited for Robert E. Lee’s Confederates to move into the open. Confident that Lee would be destroyed, Hooker proclaimed to his troops that “the operations of the last three days have determined that our enemy must ingloriously fly, or come out from behind their defenses and give us battle on our ground, where certain destruction awaits him.” However, Lee had a plan of his own.

On the Mississippi, the vanguard of Ulysses S. Grant’s army under General John A. McClernand assembled on the river’s east bank, south of Vicksburg and ready to advance inland unopposed. Grant later wrote, “All the campaigns, labors, hardships, and exposures, from the month of December previous to this time, that had been made and endured, were for the accomplishments of this one object.” Grant was aided by Benjamin Grierson’s cavalry diversion, as well as Federal demonstrations north of Vicksburg led by General William T. Sherman.

Skirmishing occurred in Alabama, western Virginia, and the Indian Territory.

Friday, May 1

In Virginia, the Battle of Chancellorsville began. As Joseph Hooker’s Army of the Potomac tried outflanking Robert E. Lee’s Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, Lee hurried to block the Federals’ exit from the Wilderness, a region of tangled underbrush that would offset the superior Federal numbers. Lee left about 10,000 men to face the Federal corps threatening Fredericksburg. After holding his ground in a series of skirmishes, Hooker ordered a withdrawal to stronger defensive positions around Chancellorsville. This stunned his subordinates, and although Hooker explained that he thought Lee was heavily reinforced, he later admitted, “For once, I lost confidence in Joe Hooker.”

Lee and Jackson discussing strategy

The Federal withdrawal allowed Lee to seize the initiative. That evening, he discussed strategy with General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, who proposed to split the army by sending Jackson’s corps to attack the vulnerable right flank. This was a bold plan because Lee’s army was already split between Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. However, Lee approved.

In his effort to capture Vicksburg, General Ulysses S. Grant’s Federals continued crossing the Mississippi River south of the town at Bruinsburg. The lead Federal corps under General John A. McClernand moved inland toward Port Gibson, about 30 miles south of Vicksburg. A small Confederate force outflanked at Grand Gulf hurried to Port Gibson to intercept McClernand. After a day-long fight, the outnumbered Confederates withdrew. Securing Port Gibson allowed the main Federal force to establish strong positions at Grand Gulf.

Before adjourning, the Confederate Congress approved several measures, including creating a Provisional Navy to complement the Regular Navy; allowing the president to approve contracts for building naval vessels in Europe; allowing congressional delegates from various Indian nations; creating a commission on taxes; tightening provisions on the conscription law; and adopting a national flag known as the “Stainless Banner.”

Skirmishing occurred in Alabama, Louisiana, and Tennessee. In Missouri, John Marmaduke’s Confederates skirmished at Chalk Bluff on the St. Francis River as they returned to Arkansas.

Saturday, May 2

In Virginia, “Stonewall” Jackson’s 28,000 Confederates moved around the Federal right flank. Federal scouts observed them and concluded they were retreating. However, Jackson attacked the unsuspecting Federal Eleventh Corps at 6 p.m. On the Federal left, Robert E. Lee’s remaining Confederates attacked to divert attention from Jackson, even though they were outnumbered by nearly four-to-one. The fight ended at nightfall with the Federals in disarray. During the night, “Stonewall” Jackson was accidentally shot by Confederate pickets while scouting positions.

In Louisiana, Benjamin Grierson’s Federals arrived in Baton Rouge after conducting one of the most successful cavalry operations of the war. Diverting Confederate attention from Ulysses S. Grant, Grierson’s men raided western Tennessee, killing 100 Confederates, taking 500 prisoners, destroying up to 60 miles of railroad and telegraph lines, capturing or destroying 3,000 arms, and seizing 1,000 horses and mules. Grierson’s men had traveled 600 miles and fought four engagements, evading thousands of Confederates along the way.

Skirmishing occurred in Alabama, Tennessee, and western Virginia.

Sunday, May 3

In Virginia, “Stonewall” Jackson’s wounds from the previous night were so serious that he relinquished command to General Jeb Stuart. By morning, the Federals had established a V-shaped defensive line. When the Confederates attacked, the Federals slowly moved back. Joseph Hooker had tens of thousands of reserves that were yet to be deployed, but he ordered no counterattack. He was knocked unconscious when he was hit in the head by wood scattered from a Confederate shell. When he regained consciousness, Hooker ordered a general withdrawal.

In Alabama, Colonel A.D. Streight’s Federals surrendered to Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest after heavy raiding and skirmishing. The Roman Catholic bishop of Iowa threatened church members with excommunication if they refused to renounce the pro-Confederate Knights of the Golden Circle.

Monday, May 4

In Virginia, the Federal corps at Fredericksburg broke through the Confederate defenses and joined Joseph Hooker’s main force. However, Hooker was already withdrawing his army across the Rappahannock River. Confederate President Jefferson Davis wired Lee his thanks on behalf of the people “reverently united with you in giving praise to God for the success with which He has crowned your arms.”

In Mississippi, Grant’s Federals continued moving south of Vicksburg, skirmishing at various places. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Missouri.

Tuesday, May 5

In Virginia, Robert E. Lee’s Confederate prepared to attack Joseph Hooker’s Federals again. However, Hooker’s army fell back across the Rappahannock, ending the Battle of Chancellorsville in Federal defeat. Hooker was defeated by a force less than half his size that had been divided three times. This humiliated the North and has since been considered one of the greatest military victories in history. However, it was a pyrrhic victory for Lee because he suffered a much greater casualty percentage than Hooker.

Former Congressman Clement Vallandigham was arrested by Federal troops in Dayton, Ohio for violating General Order No. 38. The order, issued by Department of the Ohio commander Ambrose Burnside, had prohibited disloyalty in his jurisdiction. Vallandigham was one of the most outspoken “Copperheads,” or Peace Democrats who opposed the war. His specific offense had been delivering a speech calling the war “wicked and cruel,” where the object was not to preserve the Union but to subjugate the South and establish a Republican dictatorship.

Skirmishing occurred in Mississippi, Tennessee, and Virginia. Federals conducted operations against the Indians in the Utah and Idaho territories.

Primary source: The Civil War Day by Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971)

What Made the Great Depression “Great”

The Stock Market Crash of 1929 began the long plunge into the Great Depression. Previous economic depressions had usually lasted no more than three years, so why did this one last so long?

Government Interventionism

The crash of 1929 sparked the largest financial downturn in U.S. history. Notable companies like RCA and Westinghouse lost half their value. The industrial average fell by nearly 50 points until the New York Stock Exchange closed its doors for three days. By the end of 1929, some $14 billion was gone. The depression that followed lasted over a decade, as the “Roaring ‘20s” gave way to the dreary ‘30s.

Historians often denounce President Herbert Hoover for doing nothing to stop the depression while praising President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s efforts to ultimately end the depression. They are wrong on both counts. The main reason why the depression lasted so long was because of the failed interventionist policies of both Hoover and Roosevelt.

Increased Spending and Taxing

Like politicians today, Presidents Hoover and Roosevelt both approved massive spending increases to stimulate the economy. Taxpayer money was spent on relief, corporate bailouts, and public works projects. This did nothing to stem the economic crisis. It only resulted in a bloated government that sucked capital out of the private sector, where it could have been used for innovation, investment, expansion, and job creation.

Barack Obama followed in Roosevelt’s footsteps by criticizing his predecessor while simply accelerating the programs that his predecessor had started. Like Hoover, George W. Bush approved corporate bailouts, and like Roosevelt, Obama approved even more corporate bailouts in the form of “stimulus” and propping up firms such as AIG and General Motors.

Like today, most bailout money went to corporations with the best political connections, not to businesses most in need. Thus inefficiency, corruption, and special interest lobbying ensured that government bailouts had little impact on combating the depression.

In addition, billions of dollars were spent on government-controlled public works projects in the 1930s to make work for the unemployed. But the high cost of these projects and their tendency toward political corruption only made the unemployment problem worse.

The projects only took capital from one sector of the economy and redistributed it to another, which did nothing to stimulate the economy. Government workers were often paid more than workers in the private sector, prompting many to leave their jobs to work for government. Many praised the good intentions of government in trying to create jobs, but government can only create jobs by destroying other jobs, and the other jobs are usually much more useful to communities than government “make work” projects.

Excessive government spending created a deficit that could only be fixed by higher taxes. Consequently, President Hoover approved the largest peacetime tax increase in U.S. history up to that time. Taxes were raised on nearly every individual, business, and product, which only left people with less money to save, invest, or hire workers for their businesses. Taxes were steadily raised even further under Roosevelt.

Wage and Price Controls

President Hoover implored business leaders not to cut wages during the crisis because he believed that workers with higher wages would have more purchasing power to stimulate the economy. However, when consumer demand decreases, businesses must cut either wages or workers to stay afloat. If wages are not cut, the result is unemployment. It was no coincidence that unemployment was 25 percent when Hoover left office in 1933.

During Roosevelt’s term, several laws were enacted to protect workers and unions in an effort to curb unemployment. However, these laws gave unions power to demand higher wages at a time when consumer demand did not warrant such increases. A minimum wage law made matters worse because it compelled employers to pay workers more than their production value, as dictated by consumer demand. The result was higher unemployment. It was no coincidence that unemployment was at 20 percent five years after Roosevelt took office.

Roosevelt also sought to regulate industry through the National Recovery Administration (NRA), which imposed regulations limiting production, fixing prices and wages, allowing collective bargaining for unions, and others. These empowered corporations and big unions at the expense of small business owners who could not afford to comply with such drastic rules. The NRA proved so fascistic that the Supreme Court finally ruled it unconstitutional in 1935.

Higher Tariffs

Republicans dominated the federal government in the 1920s, and Republicans traditionally supported high tariffs (i.e., taxes) on imported goods to protect U.S. manufacturers from foreign competition. Tariffs were gradually increased throughout the decade, culminating with President Hoover’s approval of the Smoot-Hawley tariff in 1930.

Smoot-Hawley was enacted over the objections of over 1,000 economists, and it was one of the most destructive tariffs ever initiated. This raised rates an average of 59 percent on 25,000 items in the hopes of stimulating U.S. production.

The new tariff shocked foreign leaders hoping to stimulate their own economies through freer trade. Many leaders retaliated with high rates of their own, thus sparking an international trade war and closing foreign markets to U.S. goods. This stagnated U.S. production, shrunk world trade, and prolonged the depression.

Interventions in Agriculture

Although industry boomed in the 1920s, agriculture was in rapid decline. This was mainly because the large demand for farm products during World War I (1914-1918) dropped after the war ended. The decreased demand led to lower prices, lower profits, and bankruptcy. What was needed to correct this was a downsize in farming, not more government regulation. But lobbyists ensured the latter.

President Hoover created the Federal Farm Board (FFB), which was headed by corporate leaders who worked to keep farm products off the market until prices rose while lining their own pockets at the same time. But once prices rose, farmers began producing more, making the overabundance problem even worse. This led to more lobbying, more corruption, and a greater distortion of the agricultural market.

When Roosevelt became president, he merely accelerated Hoover’s program with the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). The AAA tried raising farm prices by encouraging farmers to produce less, including destroying crops and livestock, in exchange for taxpayer-funded subsidies. Thus, farmers were actually paid for not farming at a time when poor, hungry people could not afford higher prices or food shortages.

These disastrous policies set a trend for massive government intrusion into private farming that continued until many subsidies were finally ended in the 1990s.

The Federal Reserve System

The role of the Fed in the crash and depression has been understated by most historians. The Fed consistently inflated currency and credit throughout the 1920s. This artificially raised prices and created artificial booms in the real estate and stock markets, much like how the Fed’s low interest policy fueled the housing boom of the 2000s. With every artificial boom comes a real bust, and that bust came in both 1929 and 2008.

In the 1920s, the Fed also sought to offset the negative effects of high tariffs by offering loans to foreign nations to buy U.S. goods. There was little consideration as to how these loans would be repaid. Moreover, the Fed began deflating the currency in 1928, and all the production spurred on by inflation could no longer keep up with the dwindling money supply. Banks became more reluctant to provide loans and businesses had less capital with which to expand.

Thus, businesses began cutting back even before the crash in October 1929. The crash was merely the culmination of the Fed’s manipulation of U.S. finance, banking, and currency. Subsequent deflation after the crash further contracted the money supply, making money even harder to come by and helping to turn a recession into a depression.

The Depression Prolonged

In a free market economy, depressions are often the result of market distortions. The purpose of depressions is to remove the distortions and return the economy to a more level playing field. Prior to 1929, the U.S. government had largely allowed distortions to correct themselves with little intervention, which is why prior depressions had lasted an average of only two or three years.

However, both presidents Hoover and Roosevelt refused to allow the distortions to correct themselves. Ironically, Hoover and Roosevelt (like Bush and Obama today) sought to correct distortions caused mostly by government intervention with even more government intervention. Not only was Hoover not a “do nothing” president during the depression, he actually made things worse with unprecedented interventions. And Roosevelt simply accelerated most of Hoover’s policies and programs, which made matters even worse.

Policies that increased taxes and spending, maintained high wages and prices, limited production, imposed protectionism, and centralized finance destroyed any chance of a fast, smooth recovery after the crash of 1929. Hoover turned the recession into a depression, and Roosevelt turned a depression into the Great Depression.

What Really Caused the Crash of ’29

The Stock Market Crash of October 1929 was the largest market collapse in U.S. history. The crash lasted a month and precipitated a general downward economic spiral that led to bank insolvency, business collapse, home foreclosure, and widespread bankruptcy. The recession that followed soon evolved into the Great Depression.

Prelude to the Crash

The decade of the 1920s was generally prosperous. By 1929, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) was five times higher than it was in 1923. But after peaking in September 1929 at 381.17, the DJIA fell sharply for a month, leading to Black Thursday on October 24.

The primary reason for the boom-and-bust cycle that took place was the Federal Reserve System. In an effort to provide easy credit for business, the Fed expanded the money supply. While this expansion helped the economic boom, it also enabled many businesses to overextend.

A byproduct of the overextension was overspeculation. The access to easy credit led people to invest heavily in the stock market, and borrowed money was often invested in the hopes of turning a profit that could repay the loans. The more money that was invested, borrowed or otherwise, the higher the prices rose. By August 1929, over $8.5 billion was on loan, which was more than the entire amount of currency circulating in the U.S.

Another byproduct of overextension was overproduction, which created too much supply and not enough demand. Overproduction prompted many businesses to liquidate, which led to the bust that was sure to come.

Black Thursday, Monday, and Tuesday

The first sharp drop in stock market prices occurred on Monday, October 21. Then on “Black Thursday,” October 24, stock prices plunged dramatically, reflecting a sellers’ panic. A record 12.9 million shares were traded as people who bought on margin (i.e., invested with borrowed money) frantically tried to cover their loans. Companies like RCA and Westinghouse lost nearly half their value.

Leading Wall Street bankers met to discuss how to handle the crisis. They designated New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) Vice President Richard Whitney to use the $240 million emergency banker fund to buy blue chip stocks in an effort to restore market confidence. This tactic was similar to what steadied the market during the Panic of 1907, and it succeeded in halting the slide for the day. But more was to come.

October 28 became “Black Monday” when the DJIA lost a record 13 percent of its value as more investors sold or traded their shares. Then October 29 became “Black Tuesday,” the worst single day in NYSE history, as 16.4 million shares were dumped in a selling rush, a record held until 1968.

The DJIA fell another 12 percent as the market lost $14 billion on “Black Tuesday” alone and $30 billion for the week. The stock ticker did not catch up with all the transactions until about 7:45 p.m. Some stocks dropped over 35 points or as much as $60 per share. Prices continued dropping throughout November, and the NYSE was forced to close for three days. The initial panic continued for two weeks, and by the end of November, stocks were at 1927 levels. By December 1, stocks had lost $26 billion in value.

Aftermath

By year’s end, $14 billion had vanished. On July 8, 1932, the DJIA reached its lowest level of the 20th century, which was 89 percent lower than its peak in September 1929. By 1933, prices were 80 percent lower than the highs of 1929.

Many historians blame the stock market crash on the excesses of capitalism by assuming that the boom-and-bust cycle is a natural part of a free market economy. But according to the Austrian economic theory, the boom-and-bust cycle is an unnatural occurrence in a free market economy that is caused by a central bank controlling a nationalized currency, in this case, the Federal Reserve.

In testimony before a Senate committee, 25 million people were affected by this financial catastrophe. The future had been bright for a prosperous America, but now one of the most difficult economic crises in U.S. history had begun.

The Civil War This Week: Apr 22-28, 1863

Wednesday, April 22

On the Mississippi River, a Federal naval flotilla of six transports and 13 barges passed the Confederate batteries at Vicksburg and landed downriver. One transport and seven barges were sunk, but the rest carried the necessary supplies for General Ulysses S. Grant to execute his plan to capture Vicksburg. Confederate President Jefferson Davis advised General John C. Pemberton, commanding the Confederates at Vicksburg, to block Federal ships on the river with flaming rafts.

Skirmishing occurred in western Virginia, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Missouri.

Thursday, April 23

Newspapers reported that a seance was conducted by a medium at the White House. It was alleged that after President Abraham Lincoln left the session, “spirits” pinched the nose of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and pulled the beard of Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles.

In North Carolina, four Confederate ships ran the Federal blockade at Wilmington and delivered valuable supplies. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, and Missouri.

Friday, April 24

The Confederate Congress passed a law imposing a “tax in kind” on 10 percent of all produce for the current year. The tax disproportionately harmed small farmers who could not afford to surrender 10 percent of their harvest, unlike plantation farmers.

Federal Colonel Benjamin Grierson

In Alabama, General Grenville Dodge’s Federals captured Tuscumbia. In Mississippi, Federal Colonel Benjamin Grierson continued his cavalry raid to divert attention from Ulysses S. Grant at Vicksburg; Grierson’s men skirmished at Garlandville and Birmingham. In the Gulf of Mexico, U.S.S. De Soto captured four Confederate blockade runners.

Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Missouri, and Louisiana.

Saturday, April 25

Confederate General Dabney H. Maury assumed command of the largely pro-Union Department of East Tennessee. In Great Britain, debate took place in Parliament over what should be done about British vessels seized by U.S. blockade ships. Skirmishing occurred in western Virginia, the Indian Territory, and the Arizona Territory.

Sunday, April 26

In Missouri, General John S. Marmaduke’s Confederates were repulsed while attacking Cape Girardeau. In Mississippi, Benjamin Grierson’s Federals threatened the state capital at Jackson. In Alabama, a Federal raid began from Tuscumbia, headed for Rome, Georgia.

Skirmishing occurred in Maryland, Virginia, western Virginia, Tennessee, Missouri, and Louisiana.

Monday, April 27

In Virginia, General Joseph Hooker’s Federal Army of the Potomac began moving out of winter quarters at Falmouth up the Rappahannock River toward the fords over the river. This began another effort to destroy General Robert E. Lee’s Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. Spring weather had dried the roads, and Washington was pressuring Hooker to act.

The Confederate Congress passed a law authorizing the issuance of eight percent bonds or stock to redeem bonds sold prior to December 1, 1862. Dabney H. Maury was replaced as commander of the Confederate Department of East Tennessee by General Simon Bolivar Buckner. Maury was reassigned to command the District of the Gulf.

In Missouri, Marmaduke’s Confederates continued skirmishing near Jackson and White Water Bridge. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, western Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina.

Tuesday, April 28

In Virginia, the Army of the Potomac began crossing the Rappahannock, moving through the Wilderness area west of Robert E. Lee’s Confederates at Fredericksburg. Hooker left a Federal corps to oppose Fredericksburg while the rest of his army moved to outflank Lee’s left. The Episcopal church in Fredericksburg rang the alarm.

President Lincoln commuted the death sentence of Sergeant John A. Chase, who had been convicted of striking and threatening an officer. Lincoln instead ordered Chase imprisoned at hard labor “with ball and chain attached to his leg” for the remainder of the war.

In Mississippi, Grierson’s Federals skirmished at Union Church. Skirmishing occurred in Kentucky and Alabama.

Civil War Spotlight: Hooker Gears for Battle

Since January 1863, Major General Joseph Hooker had been working his 100,000-man Federal Army of the Potomac into fighting shape in northern Virginia. By the end of April, Hooker was nearly ready to advance against General Robert E. Lee’s Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in Fredericksburg.

Earlier in April, Hooker had staged a “grand review” attended by President and Mrs. Lincoln. Featuring 85,000 infantrymen and 15,000 cavalrymen, it was, according to a Federal officer, “the most magnificent military pageant ever witnessed on this continent.” The review was held in full view of Lee’s Confederates, intending to both intimidate Lee’s smaller force and bolster Federal confidence.

As spring weather dried the roads, Federal officials increased pressure on Hooker to attack Lee. Lincoln was desperate for a Federal victory to lift morale and quiet dissent before about 27,000 troops enlistments expired. By late April, Hooker was ready to act.

The massive Army of the Potomac began crossing the Rappahannock River on April 27, moving through the Wilderness area west of Lee’s Confederates. Hooker left a Federal corps to oppose Lee at Fredericksburg while the rest of the army moved around Lee’s left. To further trap Lee, Hooker sent Federal cavalry between Lee and the Confederate capital at Richmond to catch Lee’s troops in a pincers movement.

Waiting for the Confederates to move out of Fredericksburg into the open, Hooker established headquarters at Chancellorsville, a small village in the Wilderness. He proclaimed to his troops that “the operations of the last three days have determined that our enemy must ingloriously fly, or come out from behind their defenses and give us battle on our ground, where certain destruction awaits him.”

But Lee had a plan of his own, which would be unveiled in May.

Was Warren Harding the Worst Ever?

The nation mourned when President Warren Harding died in August 1923. Despite being popular at the time of his death, historians have generally rated him as one of the worst U.S. presidents of all time. But is he truly deserving of such low rankings?

Harding was elected president in 1920. World War I had just ended, and Americans were tired of both foreign entanglements and the Progressive idealism of outgoing President Woodrow Wilson. Harding seemed to be a refreshing replacement who would return the U.S. to “normalcy” by reigning in big government both at home and abroad.

Ending the Depression

When Harding took office in March 1921, the U.S. was suffering from an economic depression that had been mainly caused by military demobilization and deindustrialization following the war. Prices were high, wages were low, and unemployment was widespread.

Future presidents that were faced with similar crises (i.e., Herbert Hoover, Franklin Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, George W. Bush, Barack Obama) responded by increasing government control of the economy. But Harding took the opposite approach and as a result, the depression was over so quickly that few history books even mention it.

Harding’s Treasury secretary, Andrew Mellon, studied the federal progressive tax system and concluded that higher taxes on the wealthy actually produced less revenue because the wealthy tended to hide their money from taxation. When taxes were lowered, taxpayers were more willing to pay their share. Thus, Harding approved massive cuts for all tax brackets, including lowering the top bracket from 75 to 25 percent. In addition, government spending was cut nearly 50 percent.

These tax and spending cuts returned capital to the private sector, which was used by businesses to invest and expand, which led to more job creation. Prices went down, wages went up, and unemployment became scarce. And as Mellon had theorized, the cuts actually yielded more tax revenue to the government. Within five years, tax revenue nearly tripled and the national debt was cut by one-third. This helped to spark the greatest economic explosion in U.S. history now known as the “Roaring Twenties.”

Progressive Tendencies

While Harding sought to return constitutional restraint to the federal government in terms of the economy, he tended to carry on the tradition of former Progressive presidents Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt regarding domestic affairs. For instance, Harding approved one of the first welfare programs in U.S. history. Doctors were required to provide medical attention to pregnant women and preventive care to children. Many argued that this was an unconstitutional intrusion on an issue that belonged to the states.

Harding urged increased federal intervention in agriculture. He signed several bills into law that restricted meatpacking practices, expanded farmers’ credit to secure federal loans, and exempted farm cooperatives from antitrust legislation. These laws only made the farming depression worse by encouraging farmers to take out loans and expand at a time when there was already too much supply to meet demand. This led to even further government involvement and regulation in farming that continues to this day.

Harding also urged increased federal regulation of the fledgling aviation and radio industries. Under Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover, many regulations were implemented without congressional approval, which was an unconstitutional transfer of power from the legislative to the executive branch of government. Most industrialists agreed to cooperate with the often costly government regulations for the “public good.”

As a Republican, Harding toed the party line by favoring tariffs (i.e., taxes) on imported goods to protect American industry from foreign competition. In 1922, he approved the highest tariff increases in U.S. history. Many foreign trading partners retaliated with high rates of their own. These tariffs harmed U.S. agriculture by making it harder for struggling farmers to export their goods. It also harmed consumers by keeping foreign goods out of U.S. markets, thus diminishing choice and competition. High tariffs have been considered a major contributing factor to the “Wall Street Crash” of 1929.

American Non-Interventionism

Critics have accused Harding of supporting American “isolationism” from foreign affairs, which helped allow tyrants to rise to power in other countries, ultimately leading to World War II. However, Harding played a key role in disarming the world powers and staving off war for another generation.

In support of naval disarmament, Harding assembled a conference of foreign delegates in Washington. Six treaties and 12 resolutions were approved at the Washington Naval Conference, which helped to keep peace through the ‘20s. These agreements were terminated in the ‘30s when they were violated by the military buildup of Germany, Italy, and Japan.

Harding also implemented a non-interventionist policy in Latin America. Under the four previous presidents, the U.S. had increasingly involved itself in the affairs of Latin American countries. Harding saw the resentment this caused among the people of the region and sought to change it. His administration’s biggest accomplishment in this realm was negotiating a treaty to pay Colombia for land used (and some argued stolen) by the U.S. to build the Panama Canal.

The Scandals

Historians often point to the scandals within the Harding administration as evidence of inept leadership. Harding often rewarded friends and campaign contributors with lucrative government jobs, and while these foolish appointments led to many scandals, there is no evidence that Harding himself was involved in any illegal activity.

The head of the Veterans’ Bureau, Charles Forbes, allegedly defrauded taxpayers of $225 million by increasing hospital construction costs beyond their true value and pocketing the difference. Forbes also took numerous bribes to sell hospital supplies at low rates. Harding demanded Forbes’s resignation upon learning of these scandals; Forbes eventually went to prison and his legal counsel committed suicide.

Harding’s Interior Secretary, Albert Fall, became the first cabinet official ever sentenced to prison. Fall had leased federal oil reserves in Elk Hills, California and Teapot Dome, Wyoming to private companies in exchange for $400,000 in bribes. This became known as the Teapot Dome scandal, one of the largest political scandals of the 20th century.

Harding’s Justice Department accepted bribes from bootleggers, conducted unauthorized searches and seizures against political enemies, tapped phones, and screened mail belonging to members of Congress. Albert D. Lasker, chairman of the U.S. Shipping Board, resigned in disgrace when it was revealed he had sold U.S. ships to private companies for as low as $30 per ton when the going rate was at least $250 per ton. Thomas W. Miller, head of the Office of Alien Property, was convicted of taking bribes.

Like Bill Clinton, Harding was involved in numerous extramarital affairs. He had a 15-year affair with Carrie Phillips that ended in 1920 when Republican operatives sent Phillips overseas to prevent the relationship from going public prior to the election. Harding was also alleged to have had an affair with Nan Britton, who claimed that he had fathered her child. However, many have since questioned her credibility.

Death and Legacy

By August 1923, Harding’s popularity was fading as the scandals were beginning to come to light. He embarked on a westward “Voyage of Understanding,” delivering speeches and explaining his policies. After becoming the first president to visit Alaska, Harding suddenly died in a San Francisco hotel room on August 2.

Harding had been in poor health and most likely had coronary disease. The cause of death was probably a heart attack, but his wife refused to allow an autopsy, leading to gossip that she had poisoned him due to his infidelities. There is no tangible evidence of this allegation. After a funeral procession back to Washington, where Harding lay in state, his body was entombed in his hometown of Marion, Ohio.

Harding was neither a great leader nor a great man, but in many ways he was not the terrible president that many historians have claimed. He presided over the quickest economic recovery from a depression in history through deregulation, lower taxes, and reduced government spending. He did increase government intervention in various parts of the private sector, but his overall commitment to limited government helped generate prosperity throughout America in the 1920s.

Though many label him an “isolationist,” Harding initiated unprecedented international conferences that limited armaments and improved U.S. relations with Latin America. There were many accomplishments in the administration of Warren G. Harding, but he will forever be remembered, and perhaps rightfully so, as one who presided over vast corruption and scandal that diminished the people’s faith in their government.

The Civil War This Week: Apr 15-21, 1863

Wednesday, April 15

Federal General Ulysses S. Grant

On the Mississippi River, General Ulysses S. Grant’s Federals continued moving from Milliken’s Bend to below the Confederate stronghold at Vicksburg, skirmishing with Confederates along the way. In North Carolina, Confederates abandoned a siege of Washington when Federal reinforcements approached.

Off Brazil, the Confederate commerce raider C.S.S. Alabama captured two U.S. whalers. President Abraham Lincoln wrote to General Joseph Hooker, commanding the Federal Army of the Potomac, that he was concerned about the Federal cavalry’s slowness along the Rappahannock River in northern Virginia. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, and Louisiana.

Thursday, April 16

On the Mississippi River, a Federal naval flotilla of 12 ships under Admiral David D. Porter passed the Confederate batteries at Vicksburg and landed downriver near New Carthage. All but one of the vessels made it through, despite taking several hits from the Confederate cannon. This was part of Ulysses S. Grant’s bold plan to capture Vicksburg by crossing his 44,000 troops to the west bank of the Mississippi, marching them southward past the town, then recrossing the river to take Vicksburg from behind.

Confederate President Jefferson Davis signed a bill into law authorizing army commissions for minors. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Louisiana.

Friday, April 17

Ulysses S. Grant dispatched Federal cavalry under Colonel Benjamin H. Grierson to raid northern Mississippi and southern Tennessee. This sought to divert Confederates from Grant’s plan to capture Vicksburg. Grierson and 1,700 cavalrymen left La Grange, Tennessee and moved into northern Mississippi.

Confederates under General John S. Marmaduke invaded Missouri from Arkansas. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Louisiana, and Missouri.

Saturday, April 18

President Davis approved a law creating a volunteer navy in which individuals could purchase and fit out private vessels that would operate against Federal ships for prize money. The volunteer navy measure was not implemented.

In Mississippi, Benjamin Grierson’s Federals skirmished at New Albany. In Louisiana, Federals destroyed a Confederate salt works near New Iberia. Skirmishing occurred in Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas.

Sunday, April 19

President Lincoln, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, and General-in-Chief Henry Halleck traveled to Aquia Creek in northern Virginia on a one-day trip to discuss military issues. In Mississippi, Benjamin Grierson’s Federals skirmished at Pontotoc. Other skirmishing occurred in Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Alabama, and Missouri.

Monday, April 20

President Lincoln issued a proclamation stating that West Virginia, having been granted statehood by Congress the previous December, would officially join the Union on June 20, the two-year anniversary of when western Virginia voters chose to secede from the rest of the state.

In Louisiana, Federals captured Opelousas, Washington, and Butte-a-la-Rose. In Missouri, John Marmaduke’s Confederates skirmished at Patterson. Other skirmishing occurred in Virginia, North Carolina, western Virginia, and Tennessee.

Tuesday, April 21

In western Virginia, General William E. Jones’s Confederates raided the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. Skirmishing occurred in Missouri, Mississippi, and Louisiana.

Primary Source: The Civil War Day by Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971)