Walter Coffey's Blog, page 190

Teddy Roosevelt and Big Business

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President Roosevelt the “Trust Buster”

President Theodore Roosevelt was the first president to embrace the Progressive notion that government should be more active in social and economic affairs, regardless of whether or not such activism violated the Constitution. This was exemplified by Roosevelt’s efforts to reform and regulate business. However, his lack of private sector experience only increased the power of the corporate/government alliance in America at the people’s expense.

The “Trustbuster”

In his first message to Congress in 1901, President Roosevelt stated, “There is a widespread conviction in the minds of the American people that the great corporations known as trusts are in certain of their features and tendencies hurtful to the general welfare.” Roosevelt pushed for more government regulation of business, but Congress initially adhered to constitutional restraints and resisted. But that didn’t stop Roosevelt from taking matters into his own hands.

Roosevelt’s Justice Department initiated 44 lawsuits against major corporations for violating federal antitrust laws, more than any previous president and earning Roosevelt the nickname “trustbuster.” The most prominent lawsuit was against Northern Securities, a holding company that had merged two major railroads.

Government prosecutors argued that Northern Securities could potentially violate antitrust law by restraining interstate commerce. The Supreme Court agreed, and Northern Securities was ordered to disband. This was Roosevelt’s first major antitrust victory, and it marked the first time that the federal government successfully prosecuted a business for being a potential, not actual, threat. This set a damaging precedent.

Roosevelt’s antitrust crusade weakened the ability of entrepreneurs to effectively conduct business in the U.S. Over the past century, studies have revealed that most antitrust cases actually hurt small business owners more than corporations, mainly because verdicts against trusts tend to affect their entire business sector. When an entire sector is affected through more regulations or restrictions, small business is the first to feel the pinch.

Roosevelt celebrated his prosecutions because he believed that they protected the people from the manipulation of big business. However, they only compelled business leaders to seek closer ties to government through lobbying and other influence peddling, which led to more manipulation through corruption. The prosecutions also strengthened the executive branch of government beyond anything the American founders had envisioned.

Railroad Regulations

At President Roosevelt’s urging, Congress passed the Elkins and Hepburn Acts, which tightened control over railroads by prohibiting freight discounts and empowering a federal bureaucracy to inspect railroad accounts and set rates. Roosevelt particularly hailed the Hepburn Act as “a landmark in the evolution of federal control of private industry.”

These new regulations adhered to the Progressive notion that successful businesses must be punished if they are too successful or if they exceed “reasonable” profits. They also reflected Roosevelt’s reliance on “expert” commissions to solve business problems, even if the bureaucrats in these commissions had no business experience. These commissions naturally made arbitrary decisions that made little business sense, instead simply increasing federal power at the expense of consumers and the economy.

New bureaucratic regulations increased labor costs, which decreased profits that could have been better used for modernization and expansion. This in turn diminished consumer choice and service quality, which harmed the economy and partly contributed to a major recession in 1907. By the 1930s, the private management of railroads was effectively over.

The specific regulation prohibiting freight discounts was especially harmful to trading partners such as Japan, which could not afford the new higher rates. This helped steer the Japanese toward seeking expansion through militaristic, rather than entrepreneurial, means, which indirectly led to Japan allying itself with Germany and opposing the U.S. in World War II.

Meatpacking Regulations

In 1906, President Roosevelt signed two bills into law that placed stricter regulations on food and drug production. The Pure Food and Drug Act required food and medicine companies to list their ingredients, and the Meat Inspection Act required the federal inspection and certification of meat processing plants conducting interstate commerce.

These laws were partly inspired by The Jungle, a fictional account of Chicago’s meatpacking houses by Upton Sinclair. The socialist newspaper, Appeal to Reason, had hired Sinclair to go to Chicago and sensationalize the meatpacking industry in an effort to discredit capitalism. However, Sinclair later admitted that his book and the laws it inspired actually helped the corporations more than the workers he had championed.

In fact, the big meatpackers had actually lobbied to have these laws passed because smaller competitors could not afford the new costs associated with inspection and certification. Meatpacking leaders also used the new regulations as marketing tools by announcing that their meats had been inspected and certified, which garnered public confidence. As a result, many smaller meatpacking businesses went under, and big meatpackers got bigger.

Concessions to Big Steel

President Roosevelt consistently sought to use the power of the federal government to break trusts and monopolies in business. However, leaders of the steel industry followed the meatpackers’ example by supporting government regulations in an effort to destroy smaller competitors. Ironically, this helped to create stronger trusts and monopolies than ever before.

In 1907, the leading steel companies agreed to fix prices, which would drive smaller competitors out of business. Instead of prosecuting the steel leaders for collusion, the Roosevelt administration supported the agreement, with White House representatives actually participating in the meetings.

When a major financial panic occurred in October 1907, U.S. Steel head J.P. Morgan brokered a deal among private bankers to provide corporate bailouts that prevented the panic from sparking an economic recession or worse. Roosevelt showed his gratitude toward Morgan by exempting U.S. Steel from antitrust prosecution.

The Business Legacy

Big business actually became stronger than ever during Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency, despite all his efforts to restrain corporations, trusts, and monopolies. Many of these efforts to regulate commerce either weakened industries or created monopolies that otherwise would not have existed. This reduced business competition and led to higher prices, lower quality, and diminished consumer choice. For the people, all of these did more harm than good.

The Progressive attempts to regulate big business ushered in the corporate/government ruling alliance that exists in America today, in which lobbyists influence the regulations that federal bureaucrats force the people to live by. Placing power into the hands of lobbyists and unelected bureaucrats has taken power away from state and local governments, which are more directly accountable to the people.

With Congress ultimately enacting most of his domestic agenda, Roosevelt also set the trend of presidents initiating and influencing legislation. This placed more power in the executive branch at the expense of the legislative and judicial branches of government. Successors have gradually built upon Roosevelt’s precedents, and all these trends continue today.

Civil War Spotlight: The Battle of Kelly’s Ford

Major John Pelham in West Point uniform

In Virginia, the Federal Army of the Potomac and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia continued preparing for another major spring campaign. Meanwhile, Federal cavalry under Brigadier General William Averell crossed the Rappahannock River at Kelly’s Ford to push Confederates away from Culpeper.

In the first large-scale battle for the new Federal cavalry corps, the Federals were repulsed after hard combat. Nevertheless, they showed unprecedented fighting spirit. Moreover, the Confederate victory was tempered by the loss of rising star Major John Pelham, who was killed in action.

Teddy Roosevelt and His “Big Stick”

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Roosevelt as the world’s “policeman”

President Theodore Roosevelt’s interventionist foreign policy helped transform America into the world’s greatest power. However, he subverted the Constitution in the process.

The Big Stick and Progressivism

Describing his foreign policy, Roosevelt quoted a West African proverb: “Speak softly and carry a big stick.” As president, Roosevelt used “big stick diplomacy” to spread American values and ideals throughout the world. This unprecedented seizure of executive power upset the balance of government power mandated by the Constitution and set a precedent that still exists today. Examples of Roosevelt’s expansion of executive authority included:

Converting the U.S. military into the “policeman of the world”
Committing the U.S. military to foreign excursions without congressional consent
Negotiating agreements with foreign dignitaries without Senate ratification

Roosevelt believed in the concept favored by the Progressives of his time that government should oversee and manage all human interactions, ignoring constitutional restraint in the interest of “social justice.” This, along with an underlying American sense of manifest destiny, influenced Roosevelt’s view of foreign relations. This led to the perception that any foreign country not embracing the American definitions of freedom and democracy posed a potential threat to U.S. national security.

Throughout his political career, Roosevelt insisted that America “needed” wars. When he was the assistant secretary of the Navy during the Spanish-American War, he dispatched the Pacific naval fleet to the Philippines without his superior’s consent. Roosevelt then resigned his post to lead the “Rough Riders” in the Cuban invasion that led to victory in 1898.

Prior to World War I, Roosevelt showed willingness to go to war with Germany, and even a willingness to see cities such as New York attacked by the Germans because that would force German-Americans into a “patriotic display of anger against Germany.”

The Roosevelt Corollary

In 1902, Roosevelt informed Congress that the “increasing interdependence… of international political and economic relations… insist on the proper policing of the world.” Specifically, Roosevelt targeted Latin America as a region that needed American “protection.”

European powers began threatening Latin American countries such as Venezuela and the Dominican Republic for failing to pay their debts. To Roosevelt, Europe’s insistence that Latin America honor its financial obligations required an aggressive American response.

After winning a second term as president in 1904, Roosevelt declared that only the U.S. had authority to intervene in Latin America for the “best interests” of the Western Hemisphere. He stated that “the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, to the exercise of an international police power.”

While the Monroe Doctrine declared that the U.S. would oppose European nations trying to exert their influence in the Western Hemisphere, Roosevelt extended the doctrine by declaring that only the U.S. could exert influence in the West. To justify this, Roosevelt simply took the Progressive notion that impoverished people could not help themselves and applied it to impoverished Latin American countries. Thus, the U.S. would intervene in Latin American business for their own “good,” and in return it was expected that Latin America would embrace U.S. values and allow U.S. business to dominate their markets.

This became known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and it was used to justify future U.S. military interventions, not only in Latin American countries but throughout the world.

The Dominican Republic

The Roosevelt Corollary’s first test came in December 1904 when the Dominican Republic defaulted on its debts to Belgium, Italy, and Germany. When these nations threatened to seize the Dominican customs houses by force, President Roosevelt intervened by sending U.S.S. Detroit to assist in negotiations.

Four months later, the Dominicans agreed to allow the U.S. to take their customs houses and enforce revenue collection. In return, the U.S. would adjudicate the disputes between the Dominicans and their European creditors. The treaty approving this deal was never ratified by the U.S. Senate as required by the Constitution, but Roosevelt enforced its terms nonetheless.

Cuba

Cuba had gained independence when the U.S. defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War. Under the independence treaty, Cuba was required to lease Guantanamo Bay to the U.S., which was to be used for “coaling and naval purposes only, and for no other purpose.” This treaty has been violated by the ongoing U.S. detention of suspected terrorists at Guantanamo.

When Cubans rebelled against election results in 1906, President Roosevelt sent military personnel to restore order and organize a new government without congressional consent. He stated, “I should not dream of asking the permission of Congress…” This set a trend in which future U.S. presidents committed the military to foreign countries for “nation building” purposes without congressional approval.

Panama

U.S. officials had long sought to build a canal through Central America so that ships could travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific without having to go all the way around South America. When Panama revolted against ruling Colombia, President Roosevelt sent warships without Congress’s consent to support the Panamanian secession. Roosevelt quickly recognized the hastily created Republic of Panama, and a treaty was negotiated giving the U.S. the right to build the Panama Canal.

Securing the Panama Canal was Roosevelt’s greatest foreign policy achievement and the most vivid example of Roosevelt’s “big stick” diplomacy. But the way it was done was most likely unconstitutional. Roosevelt defended his actions by later stating: “I took the Canal Zone and let Congress debate; and while the debate goes on the Canal does also.”

The Philippines

The Philippine-American War was conducted partly under President Roosevelt and almost completely without congressional consent. The U.S. had acquired the Philippines in the Spanish-American War, but when the U.S. refused to grant the islands their independence, the Filipinos rebelled. This sparked a four-year conflict without Congress ever declaring war. Over 7,000 U.S. troops were either killed or wounded, while Filipino civilian and military deaths numbered anywhere from 250,000 to one million.

Historians often overlook this war, but it was extremely significant in beginning the U.S. policy of intervening in countries and imposing freedom on supposedly barbaric peoples for their own good. The war also demonstrated Roosevelt’s disregard for other branches of government. The Philippines were not granted independence until 1946.

Japan and the Great White Fleet

Another way in which President Roosevelt disregarded the Constitution’s separation of powers was to make “executive agreements” with foreign countries. Unlike treaties, these would not require approval from two-thirds of the Senate to go into effect. The last executive agreement prior to Roosevelt’s presidency was the Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817 that limited U.S. and British armaments on the Great Lakes. But even then, President James Monroe sought the Senate’s opinion and obtained a two-thirds approval.

Roosevelt made many executive agreements with Japan, including the “Taft-Katsura Agreement” (allowing Japan to control Korea), the “Root-Takahua Agreement” (recognizing Japan’s “special interests” in China), and the “Gentlemen’s Agreement” restricting Japanese immigration to the U.S. Congress was neither consulted nor did it approve any of these agreements.

In 1907, Roosevelt sent the “Great White Fleet” of 16 U.S. warships on the first world naval tour in history to demonstrate military strength. The voyage was especially intended to intimidate Japan, which was becoming a world power. When Congress objected to the tour and threatened to withhold funds to pay for it, Roosevelt warned that he had the money to send the fleet out and Congress would be responsible for not funding the trip back home. Congress meekly complied.

While the voyage was initially viewed as a great international success for both Roosevelt and the U.S., it encouraged Japan to accelerate naval and arms production to match America. Thus, the fleet’s voyage indirectly played a role in starting the path toward World War II.

The “Big Stick” Legacy

One of the main reasons why Theodore Roosevelt was able to circumvent the Constitution so easily was because of his immense popularity among the people, thanks in part to a complicit media. He was one of the first presidents to welcome publicity, and the press covered his daily life more than any other president before him.

Another reason for Roosevelt’s success was because most people wanted a strong executive to seize the initiative in foreign relations and pursue expansion in the hope that greater U.S. influence in foreign markets would strengthen the U.S. economy. Roosevelt sought to expand, not just to enhance the economy, but to make the U.S. a world power. Successors gradually built on Roosevelt’s example, resulting in the empire we have today.

While Theodore Roosevelt did much to make the U.S. a world power, he did so by showing contempt not only for Congress but for the constitutional form of government established by the founders. This is partly why America today is so different than what the founders had envisioned. By using unprecedented executive power in international affairs, Theodore Roosevelt was the first modern U.S. president.

The Civil War This Week: Mar 18-24, 1863

Confederate Envoy John Slidell

Wednesday, March 18

Confederate commissioner John Slidell and representatives of Emile Erlanger, head of France’s most influential bank, negotiated a loan to the Confederacy for $15 million to help finance the war. The loan was secured by the Confederate sale of 20-year war bonds that could be exchanged for cotton, the South’s most lucrative commodity. The cotton was to be sold to bondholders at 12 cents per pound when the market rate was 21 cents per pound. Some Confederate officials noted the enormous profit margin and accused Erlanger of extortion, but they were desperate for money so the loan was approved.

President Abraham Lincoln wrote to Congressman Henry Winter Davis of Maryland: “Let the friends of the government first save the government, then administer it to their own liking.” General Theophilus H. Holmes assumed command of the Confederate District of Arkansas.

Thursday, March 19

In the South, the first bond sales on the new Erlanger loan took place. Initial sales were successful, but Federal agents in Europe spread rumors that Confederate securities were a poor risk and bid up the cost of war supplies so high that the Confederates could not afford to buy them. Many investors were ruined, Erlanger cleared $6 million in commissions, and the Confederacy was left with $9 million to pay for war.

On the Mississippi River, the Federal ships Hartford and Albatross under command of Flag Officer David G. Farragut passed the batteries at Grand Gulf, just south of Vicksburg. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Arkansas.

Friday, March 20

Federal General Stephen A. Hurlbut informed President Lincoln of all the unsuccessful attempts to attack Vicksburg thus far. Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee and Florida.

Saturday, March 21

On the Mississippi River, Farragut’s Federal ships anchored below Vicksburg. Confederate sharpshooters harassed General William T. Sherman’s Federals at Steele’s Bayou. In Tennessee, Confederate guerrillas attacked a train traveling from Bolivar to Grand Junction.

In Louisiana, one Federal expedition left New Orleans for Ponchatoula, and another left Bonnet Carre for the Amite River. Federal General Edwin Sumner died; he had fought admirably on the Virginia Peninsula and at Antietam last year.

Sunday, March 22

In Kentucky, Confederate under John Pegram began operations, while part of John Hunt Morgan’s Confederate force attempted to capture a Federal garrison at Mount Sterling. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansas.

Monday, March 23

The Confederate Congress authorized funding Treasury notes issued previous to December 1, 1862 and further issuance of Treasury notes for not less than $5 or more than $50 each.

President Lincoln wrote to New York Governor Horatio Seymour, a Democratic opponent of his administration, that “there can not be a difference of purpose between you and me. If we should differ as to the means, it is important that such difference should be as small as possible–that it should not be enhanced by unjust suspicions on one side or the other.”

In Florida, Federal forces operated near Jacksonville. On the Mississippi River, Farragut’s Federal ships attacked Confederate batteries at Warrenton, below Vicksburg. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee.

Tuesday, March 24

In Mississippi, William T. Sherman’s Federals were stopped in their struggles north of Vicksburg in a skirmish at Black’s Bayou. This convinced Sherman to abandon the futile effort to reach Vicksburg through the maze of marshes and swamps north of the stronghold. Sherman’s withdrawal ended a series of unsuccessful efforts to attack Vicksburg from the north, and General Ulysses S. Grant began formulating a new plan of attack.

Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Florida. In Arkansas, Federal scouts began operating near Fayetteville.

Primary source: The Civil War Day by Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: DaCapo Press, Inc., 1971)

Review for The Civil War Months – Feb 19, 2013

Below is a five-star review of my book, The Civil War Months, by Anne Boling of Readers’ Favorite. Thanks for such a great write-up!

Most of us think we know why this country had a civil war. However, there are many misconceptions as to the true reasons why the South wanted to secede from the United States of America. Walter Coffey deftly describes the facts surrounding the Civil War month by month. When we hear the words ‘The War Between the States’ most of us think of slavery; but was that really the motive of the Northern states? Most wars are fought over money and politics. ‘The War Between The States’ was no different. The North was industrialized and to protect against imports stealing profits they wanted high taxes placed on imports. The high taxes on imports greatly affected the Southern states. “Foreign trading partners tended to raise process to offset the tariff increases.” The Southern States wanted a smaller Federal government and great power at the state level. The North wanted bigger Federal government. Slavery did play a role but more on an economic level than the humanitarian level.

I have always enjoyed history especially when it comes to the War Between the States. Walter Coffey states the facts but not in a dry or boring manner. He makes this book entertaining as well as educational. Walter Coffey dedicates one chapter to each month; in each chapter he supplies spurs and battles; he does this with precision. Civil War Months: A Month-by-Month Compendium of the War Between the States covers January 1861 through May 1865. This book should be in all high school and middle school libraries.

The McKinley Assassination

The assassination of President William McKinley by an anarchist in 1901 turned Americans against immigrants and radicals, enhanced presidential security, and ushered in the Progressive era with the ascension of Theodore Roosevelt.

The Pan-American Exposition

President William McKinley and his wife attended the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York on September 5, 1901. In a speech at the exposition, McKinley declared, “God and man have linked the nations together… Isolation is no longer possible or desirable.” McKinley also informed the audience that he was reconsidering his protectionist views on tariff policy. A new era was unfolding, and quicker than expected.

In attendance was Leon Czolgosz (pronounced “Chol-gosh”), an anarchist son of Polish immigrants. Czolgosz was an unemployed factory worker and farmhand. He had been staying in a boardinghouse outside Buffalo when he read in a newspaper that McKinley would be attending the exposition. Czolgosz determined to kill the president, but at McKinley’s speech, he was prevented from approaching the stage by Secret Service agents.

Czolgosz Shoots McKinley

The following day, McKinley returned to the exposition at 3:30 p.m. to greet the public in the Temple of Music. In the building, a large crowd had formed a line to shake hands with the president. In that line was Leon Czolgosz, his right hand wrapped in a handkerchief. Concealed in the handkerchief was an Iver Johnson .32-caliber revolver.

McKinley’s secretary, George Cortelyou, disliked these types of receptions because of their security risk. At the time, the president did not have an official bodyguard force. The Secret Service, created in 1865 as part of the Treasury Department to combat counterfeiting, was occasionally assigned to provide informal protection to the president. Thus, a few Secret Service agents were on hand, along with some Buffalo detectives and a detachment of U.S. Army soldiers patroling the premises. While this security force scrutinized the crowd, no searches were conducted.

Flanked by aides and guards, McKinley stood and shook hands with people filing by in a long line as soft music played in the background. He requested that the line be speeded up so he could shake more hands. Czolgosz moved forward, keeping his hand concealed to make it appear as if it was injured. A Secret Service agent asked Czolgosz if he needed first aid, but Czolgosz replied that he wanted to meet the president first.

When Czolgosz reached the front of the line, he extended his left hand. McKinley shook the left hand and Czolgosz moved on. After some more people passed through the line, Czolgosz returned at 4:07 p.m. A Secret Service agent grabbed Czolgosz’s shoulder to move him along, but Czolgosz brushed his hand away, lunged forward and fired twice through his handkerchief into the president standing no more than three feet away.

McKinley shuddered, stiffened, stared at Czolgosz in astonishment and stumbled back into the arms of surrounding aides. His white shirt reddened with blood. Secret Service agents and detectives knocked Czolgosz to the floor and extinguished the handkerchief, which was on fire. Czolgosz was severely beaten but McKinley, still conscious, ordered that Czolgosz not be harmed. McKinley also asked that care be taken when informing his chronically ill wife of the event.

McKinley’s Medical Treatment

McKinley remained standing in his aides’ arms while guards dragged Czolgosz away. At 4:18 p.m., an ambulance arrived and took McKinley to the hospital on the exposition grounds. At the hospital, the president underwent emergency surgery. The first bullet deflected off McKinley’s breastbone and caused minimal damage; it was easily found and extracted. However, doctors could not find the second bullet. They determined that it had passed through his stomach and hit his colon, pancreas, and kidney before lodging in his back muscles.

The doctors feared that attempting to extract the bullet would cause more harm than good, so they left it alone and closed the wound. An experimental x-ray machine was at the exposition, but doctors were reluctant to use it on McKinley because they feared the rays could cause side effects. There was also no electric lighting in the operating room, even though the exposition buildings were filled with electric light bulbs. Doctors used a pan to reflect sunlight onto the operating table as they treated McKinley’s wounds.

After the operation, doctors were optimistic that the president could recover. McKinley, still unconscious from the ether used to sedate him, was taken to the home of exposition director John Milburn to begin his recovery.

Interrogating Leon Czolgosz

Meanwhile, Leon Czolgosz had been beaten so badly that some did not think he would live to stand trial. The evening of the shooting, Czolgosz confessed to the crime and insisted he had acted alone. He claimed to be an anarchist who did not believe in governments, rulers, voting, religion, or marriage. He also claimed to be heavily influenced by prominent anarchists such as “Red” Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman.

It was learned that Czolgosz was mostly a recluse who spent much time alone reading radical tracts, as well as socialist and anarchist newspapers. Czolgosz had also contacted various anarchist groups, but there was no evidence that anybody assisted him or knew of his plan to shoot McKinley.

Czolgosz believed that the U.S. was unjust because the wealthy enriched themselves by exploiting the poor. Authorities believed that he was simply mimicking the assassination of the king of Italy the year before; the king had been killed by an anarchist claiming to be defending the common man. In a handwritten confession, Czolgosz complained that “McKinley was going around the country shouting about prosperity when there was no prosperity for the poor man.” Czolgosz was sent to a New York prison to await trial.

McKinley’s Health Deteriorates

At John Milburn’s home, President McKinley appeared to be recovering from his wounds. The day after the shooting, he was relaxed and conversational. After a few more days, Vice President Theodore Roosevelt and cabinet members who had visited the president expressed confidence that he would recuperate.

On September 12, doctors informed the press that they believed McKinley would recover. McKinley continued his convalescence and received the first food orally since the shooting—toast and a small cup of coffee. But by afternoon, the president began feeling pain and nausea, and his pulse weakened.

The next day, McKinley began rapidly deteriorating, and he went into shock. He was given adrenaline and oxygen, but it was no use. At 2:15 on the morning of September 14, McKinley died of infection and gangrene surrounding his gunshot wounds.

William McKinley was the third U.S. president to have been assassinated, following Abraham Lincoln and James Garfield. McKinley’s body was placed aboard a train, and the funeral procession went through the streets of Buffalo to Washington, DC, then on to his final resting place at Canton, Ohio.

The Trial of Leon Czolgosz

Just nine days after McKinley’s death, Leon Czolgosz went on trial. He was assigned two lawyers for his defense, but he refused to speak to them, claiming he did not believe in courts or lawyers. Czolgosz also refused to talk to the medical expert assigned to test his sanity. Instead, Czolgosz only spoke with his prison guards.

The defense argued that Czolgosz was insane, but prosecutors refuted that assertion by pointing to his affiliation with anarchist groups. Czolgosz’s lawyers produced no witnesses and did not contest unanimous medical testimony that Czolgosz was legally sane. Czolgosz showed no interest in the proceedings and refused to take the stand.

In a trial that lasted only eight hours and 26 minutes, Czolgosz was found guilty and sentenced to death in the electric chair. He showed no emotion when the verdict was delivered. On October 29, Czolgosz was escorted to his execution at Auburn State Prison in New York, where he proclaimed, “I killed the president because he was the enemy of the good people—the good working people. I am not sorry for my crime.”

Alternating 1,800 and 300-volt charges were sent through Czolgosz until he was pronounced dead. The following year, the execution was reenacted and recorded by Thomas Edison’s kinetoscope, providing a primitive motion picture account of the event.

The Aftermath of McKinley’s Assassination

The assassination of William McKinley turned Americans against immigrants and radical political groups. It touched off a wave of arrests and attacks on anarchists, and Congress passed strict laws limiting the influence of radical organizations. Ironically, Czolgosz’s act inflamed public opinion against the cause that he claimed to champion.

In addition, the Secret Service began providing full-time security to McKinley’s successor, Theodore Roosevelt, in 1902. In 1906, legislation was enacted that officially designated the Secret Service as the agency empowered to protect the president at all times. With McKinley’s death, reconstruction following the Civil War ended and the Progressive era under Roosevelt began.

The Civil War Months Nominated for Book of the Year

I am honored to announce that my latest book, The Civil War Months, has been named finalist for Foreword Magazine’s Book of the Year in History!

Winners will be announced in Chicago on June 28.

For more details, click here. Thanks to Foreword for their recognition!

The Civil War This Week: Mar 11-17, 1863

Wednesday, March 11

In Mississippi, Confederates blocked Federal gunboats from advancing on Vicksburg. The Confederates had quickly built Fort Pemberton out of earth and cotton bales, and they stopped the Federal effort to attack Vicksburg via the Yazoo River to the north.

Skirmishing occurred in Kentucky. In Baltimore, a Federal commander prohibited the sale of pictures of Confederate military and political leaders.

Thursday, March 12

In Tennessee, a Federal expedition on the Duck River returned to Franklin. A Federal expedition in western Virginia began.

Friday, March 13

In Mississippi, the Confederates at Fort Pemberton held firm against Federal gunboat attacks. In Richmond, an explosion caused by the accidental ignition of a friction primer killed or wounded 69 people at the Confederate Ordnance Laboratory; casualties included 62 women. Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee.

Saturday, March 14

Federal Flag Officer David G. Farragut

On the Mississippi River, a Federal naval squadron led by Flag Officer David G. Farragut attempted to pass the Confederate batteries at Port Hudson, Louisiana. Federal troops under General Nathaniel Banks attempted to create a diversion to allow the ships to pass, but the vessels were pummeled by Confederate artillery. Only three of the seven ships managed to run the gauntlet and land between Port Hudson and Vicksburg. This proved that capturing Port Hudson would be more difficult for the Federals than anticipated.

Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee.

Sunday, March 15

In San Francisco, Federal authorities seized the ship J.M. Chapman as it was about to leave port allegedly carrying 20 secessionists and six cannons. In North Carolina, the British ship Britannia successfully ran the Federal blockade at Wilmington, even though the blockade was growing stronger. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, and Mississippi.

Monday, March 16

In Mississippi, General William T. Sherman and 11 Federal gunboats tried advancing through the twisting waterways from the Yazoo River to Steele’s Bayou, north of Vicksburg. However, Confederate obstructions in the water made progress virtually impossible.

In Tennessee, a Federal expedition from Jackson to Trenton began.

Tuesday, March 17

In Virginia, the Battle of Kelly’s Ford occurred when Federal cavalry under General William Averell crossed the Rappahannock River to push Confederates away from Culpeper. In the first large-scale battle for the new Federal cavalry corps of the Army of the Potomac, the Federals were repulsed after hard combat. However, they showed unprecedented fighting spirit. Moreover, the Confederate victory was tempered by the loss of rising star Major John Pelham, who was killed in action.

President Abraham Lincoln responded to a letter from General William Rosecrans complaining that the government was not supporting his efforts in Tenneseee, ”… you wrong both yourself and us, when you even suspect there is not the best disposition on the part of us all here to oblige you.” Skirmishing occurred in Virginia.

Primary source: The Civil War Day-by-Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971)

Civil War Spotlight: The Desperate Erlanger Loan

Confederate commissioner John Slidell and representatives of Emile Erlanger, head of France’s most influential bank, negotiated a loan to the Confederacy for $15 million to help finance the war. The loan was to be secured by the Confederate sale of 20-year war bonds that could be exchanged for cotton, the South’s most lucrative commodity.

The cotton was to be sold to bondholders at 12 cents per pound while the market rate was 21 cents per pound, making the potential margin for profit enormous. Confederate offcials complained about Erlanger’s insistence on high interest rates and a five percent commission; some even accused Erlanger of extortion. Nevertheless, they approved the loan in the hope that France would recognize the Confederacy.

The Confederates were desperate to raise money, and with depleted specie reserves, the government had turned to bond sales. When these sales further drained the specie out of the South, the government printed paper money that quickly depreciated and caused prices to soar. It was hoped that this loan would not only finance the war but help stabilize the southern economy.

The first bond sale on March 19 was successful. However, Federal agents in Europe spread rumors that Confederate securities were a poor risk and bid up the cost of war supplies so high (using Federal gold the Confederacy did not have) that the Confederates could not afford to buy them. This discredited the bonds and caused the price to plummet. Many investors lost fortunes, but Erlanger cleared $6 million in interest and commissions, leaving the Confederacy with $9 million in European currency to pay for the war.

The Republic of Texas

On April 21, 1836, an army of Texans under General Sam Houston routed the Mexican Army at San Jacinto near present-day Houston. This was the culmination of a movement that led to the independence of the Republic of Texas from Mexico.

Early Settlement

When Mexico secured its independence from Spain, the new country included present-day Texas. At the time, few Spaniards lived in Texas. To expand its economy and help fend off Indian attacks, the Mexican government encouraged immigration to Texas, mostly from the U.S. In the early 1820s, the first wave of American immigrants to Texas was led by Stephen F. Austin. More followed in later years, many of whom were southerners who brought their slaves along.

By 1830, about 8,000 farmers and 1,000 slaves resided in the Brazos and Colorado River Valleys near modern-day Houston. However, a series of acts by the Mexican government began fueling resentment among the settlers calling themselves Texians. These included:

Demanding that slaveholders free their slaves and renounce slavery
Rescinding property tax exemptions
Raising tariffs on imported U.S. goods
Prohibiting further immigration into Texas and deploying troops to defend the borders
Permitting corruption in the capital at Coahuila
Demanding that all settlers convert to Catholicism and pay a tithe to the Catholic Church
Demanding that Texian farmers produce foodstuffs rather than the more profitable cotton

Santa Anna Seizes Power

The excessive government intervention into Texian affairs increased when Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna overthrew the Mexican government in 1833 and became president. Santa Anna abolished the Mexican constitution that Texian settlers had agreed to follow and began centralizing government power in his regime.

Stephen Austin requested to separate Texas from the corrupt Coahuila, but he was denied. Austin expressed anger about this denial in a letter, and he was imprisoned for 18 months when the letter was confiscated by Mexican officials. Austin’s imprisonment caused many protests among the Texians, and Santa Anna sent Mexican forces into Texas to suppress these protests.

Meanwhile, other Mexican states began rebelling against Santa Anna’s oppressive policies. The brutal suppression of resistance in Zacatecas included rape, pillage, and murder. Santa Anna also ordered the military to disarm the militias in the rebellious states, including Texas. When Austin was finally released from prison, he began raising volunteer militias in Texas to oppose Santa Anna and secede from Mexico.

The Battle of Gonzales

In the fall of 1835, a Mexican force ordered local Texians to return a cannon stationed in Gonzales in accordance with Santa Anna’s order to disarm all militias. When the Texians refused, the Mexicans tried to attack, but they were stopped by the deep Guadalupe River and 18 Texian militiamen, nicknamed the “Old Eighteen.”

The Texians waved a flag over the cannon. The white flag had a black star and the words “Come and take it” stitched into it. The Mexicans tried to take the cannon, but after a small battle they were forced to withdraw to San Antonio. Gonzales marked the first official battle between the Texians and the Mexican government, and as such is considered the start of the Texas Revolution.

Texas Independence

On March 2, 1836, a group of Texians organized and signed the Texas Declaration of Independence from Mexico. Proclaiming the Republic of Texas, the new “Texans” drafted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution, including legalizing slavery. The provisional government consisted of President David G. Burnet and Vice President Lorenzo de Zavala.

In addition, a regular army was created and Sam Houston was appointed commander. Stephen Austin, commander of the volunteer militia, resigned to become the commissioner to the U.S. The new nation was nicknamed the Lone Star Republic because its flag featured a single white star.

Santa Anna ignored the proclamation, instead leading a 6,000-man army into Texas to put down the rebellion. He divided his force and moved with 3,000 of his men on San Antonio, the political and military center of Texas, where a Texan volunteer force was stationed at a mission called the Alamo.

The Alamo

The volunteers at the Alamo had withdrawn to the Alamo to await reinforcements, but none came. This left 187 Texans under Colonels William Travis and James Bowie to defend the mission against Santa Anna’s 3,000 Mexicans.

After an 11-day siege, the Mexicans attacked the Alamo. Within an hour, the fort was overwhelmed and all the defenders were killed; the Mexicans suffered from 600 to 1,000 casualties in the attack. The defenders were hailed as heroes by the Texan rebels, and the fall of the Alamo inspired Texas settlers to redouble their efforts to secure independence. “Remember the Alamo” became a war cry.

The Goliad Massacre

While Santa Anna led half of his force against the Alamo, the other half advanced on Goliad, which was defended by 500 Texans under Colonel James Fannin. After heavy skirmishing, Fannin surrendered his force to the superior foe. However, Fannin was unaware of Santa Anna’s order to execute all prisoners. Fannin and his 342 remaining men were marched near the San Antonio River and executed by firing squad. This became known as the Goliad Massacre.

Goliad, along with the Alamo, sparked desperate resistance to Mexican authority in Texas. Santa Anna was branded a cruel dictator, prompting the U.S., Great Britain, and France to support the Texans. Meanwhile, Santa Anna’s next target was Sam Houston’s Army of Texas.

The Runaway Scrape

Following his victory at the Alamo, Santa Anna hoped to force a decisive battle with Houston’s army. Houston withdrew his men to the east, knowing he could not win an open fight with Santa Anna’s seasoned troops. As Houston’s men withdrew, the Texas government abandoned the capital at Washington-on-the-Brazos and relocated at Galveston. Fleeing with them were thousands of panicked settlers in what became known as the “Runaway Scrape.”

Santa Anna’s advance was slowed by swollen rivers, which gave Houston time to train and equip his army. Finally, the frustrated soldiers grew tired of retreating. Without Houston’s consent, about 900 troops turned to meet the Mexican advance. Houston had no choice but to follow.

The Battle of San Jacinto

On April 20, the two armies camped within about 1,000 yards of each other near the San Jacinto River. Santa Anna was so confident that the Texans would not attack that he failed to post sentries.

The next day, the Texan attack caught the Mexicans completely by surprise. As they moved across the plain, the Texans shouted, “Remember the Alamo!” and “Remember Goliad!” The Mexican defenses quickly crumbled, and the 18-minute battle became a rout.

About 630 Mexicans were killed, 208 were wounded and 730 were captured. There were only nine Texan casualties. Santa Anna escaped, but he was later captured in disguise as a servant. A legend spread that Santa Anna was “entertaining” a woman when the battle began, and this inspired the song “The Yellow Rose of Texas.”

The Lone Star Republic

The stunning Texan victory at San Jacinto made Houston a national hero and assured the independence of Texas. Houston spared Santa Anna’s life in exchange for recognizing Texas as an independent nation and withdrawing Mexican troops. However, the peace terms would prove to be more ambiguous than anticipated.

While Santa Anna was in Texas, his regime was overthrown in Mexico City. So when he agreed to grant Texas independence, he no longer had the authority to do so. As a result, the Mexican government plotted for the next 10 years to retake Texas. After deciding that protection was more important than independence, Texas requested to join the United States.

Finally, after the U.S. defeated Mexico in the Mexican-American War of 1846-48, Mexican officials signed a treaty formally recognizing the independence of Texas. By that time, Texas had already been a state in the U.S. since 1845. The Lone Star Republic had lasted nine years.