Walter Coffey's Blog, page 180

Remembering the Alamo

On March 2, 1836, a group of Texians organized and signed the Texas Declaration of Independence from Mexico. Proclaiming the Republic of Texas, the Texians drafted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution. The provisional government consisted of President David G. Burnet and Vice President Lorenzo de Zavala.

In addition, a regular army was created and Sam Houston was appointed commander. Stephen Austin, commander of the volunteer militia, resigned to become the commissioner to the U.S. The new nation was nicknamed the Lone Star Republic because its flag featured a single white star.

Santa Anna ignored the proclamation, instead leading a 6,000-man army into Texas to put down the rebellion. He divided his force and moved with 3,000 of his men on San Antonio, the political and military center of Texas, where a Texian volunteer force was stationed at a mission called the Alamo.

The volunteers at the Alamo had withdrawn to the Alamo to await reinforcements, but none came. This left 187 Texians under Colonels William B. Travis and James Bowie to defend the mission against Santa Anna’s 3,000 Mexicans.

After an 11-day siege, the Mexicans attacked the Alamo. Within an hour, the fort was overwhelmed and all the defenders were killed; the Mexicans suffered from 600 to 1,000 casualties in the attack. The defenders were hailed as heroes by the Texan rebels, and the fall of the Alamo inspired Texas settlers to redouble their efforts to secure independence. “Remember the Alamo” became a war cry.

The infographic at left was powered by Marriott.

For more information, see the Alamo in San Antonio infographic.

The Civil War This Week: Dec 9-15, 1863

Wednesday, December 9

President Abraham Lincoln’s annual message was read to Congress. Lincoln reported that foreign relations were peaceful, Indian relations in the territories were stable, and the naval blockade was growing stronger. Lincoln stated that northern optimism seemed to be rising following the major military victories at Gettysburg, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga.

Noting the pessimism that had pervaded the North a year ago, Lincoln stated that “the crisis which threatened to divide the friends of the Union is past.” His message ended with a salute to the soldiers, to whom “the world must stand indebted for the home of freedom disenthralled, regenerated, enlarged, and perpetuated.”

General Ambrose Burnside’s request to be removed as commander of the Federal Department of the Ohio was granted. Burnside had long resented accusations of failing to support the Federals at Chattanooga and failing to act decisively in eastern Tennessee. He was replaced by Major General John G. Foster.

Federal troops suppressed a mutiny of black soldiers at Fort Jackson, Louisiana. The incident occurred due to allegations that white officers were mistreating the black troops.

Federal expeditions began from Waldron, Arkansas and Houston, Missouri. Federal naval vessels seized the British blockade-runner Minna off Charleston, South Carolina. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, and Mississippi.

Thursday, December 10

Skirmishing occurred in eastern Tennessee as General James Longstreet’s retreating Confederates tried concentrating near Greeneville.

Confederate President Jefferson Davis expressed concern about the shortage of military manpower.

Federal cavalry conducted raids along the West Virginia, Virginia & Tennessee Railroad. Federals also destroyed a Confederate salt works at Choctawatchie Bay, Florida. Other skirmishing occurred in North Carolina.

Friday, December 11

Federals launched 220 artillery rounds into Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina; a magazine explosion killed 11 and wounded 41. This was the last bombardment of Fort Sumter for the year.

In the Confederate War Department’s annual report, Secretary of War James A. Seddon acknowledged major defeats and an increase in desertion, straggling, and absenteeism. Seddon proposed repealing the substitute and exemption provisions of the draft law.

Skirmishing occurred in West Virginia as part of the Federal cavalry raid on the railroad. A Federal expedition began from Pulaski, Tennessee.

Saturday, December 12

Federal cavalry attacked several points in their railroad raid in West Virginia. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and northern Georgia.

Sunday, December 13

A potential scandal erupted when Emily Todd Helm visited her half-sister, First Lady Mary Lincoln, at the White House. Mrs. Helm was the widow of Confederate General Ben Helm, and some accused Mrs. Lincoln of treason for associating with her.

Skirmishing increased as Federal cavalry continued railroad raids in Virginia and West Virginia. Skirmishing occurred in eastern Tennessee, northern Georgia, and Arkansas.

Monday, December 14

President Lincoln announced that Mrs. Lincoln’s half-sister, Emily Todd Helm, had been granted amnesty by swearing allegiance to the Union. This diffused the controversy of a Confederate widow visiting the White House.

James Longstreet’s Confederates attacked Federals at Bean’s Station in eastern Tennessee. The Federals were initially driven back in heavy fighting before making a stand.

A Federal expedition began from Rossville, Georgia. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, West Virginia, and Arkansas.

Tuesday, December 15

In eastern Tennessee, Federals withdrew from Bean’s Station despite having made a stand there yesterday. Confederate Major General Jubal A. Early was assigned to the Shenandoah Valley District. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia and Tennessee.

Primary Source: The Civil War Day by Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971)

Attack in the Senate Chamber

In 1856, Senator Charles Sumner was beaten with a cane by a congressman responding to Sumner’s bitter condemnation of slavery. Reaction to this attack reflected the deep divisions between North and South.

In the decade prior to the War Between the States (1861-65), Charles Sumner of Massachusetts had become one of the most vocal anti-slavery critics in the Senate. He vividly expressed his point of view in a speech during the debate over whether or not slavery should be allowed in the new Kansas Territory. The speech was called “Crime Against Kansas.”

Sumner angrily denounced the recently enacted Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery. To Sumner, slavery should have been prohibited in all U.S. territories, which would stop the “Slave Power” from expanding its political influence on the federal government. Sumner equated the Slave Power pushing for slavery in Kansas to a man forcing sexual relations on a woman:

“Not in any common lust for power did this uncommon tragedy have its origin. It is the rape of a virgin Territory, compelling it to the hateful embrace of slavery; and it may be clearly traced to a depraved desire for a new Slave State, hideous offspring of such a crime, in the hope of adding to the power of slavery in the National Government.”

Sumner then targeted Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina, one of the top proponents of spreading slavery into the territories:

“The senator from South Carolina… has chosen a mistress to whom he has made his vows, and who, though ugly to others, is always lovely to him… I mean the harlot, Slavery. For her his tongue is always profuse in words. Let her be impeached in character, or any proposition made to shut her out from the extension of her wantonness, and no extravagance of manner or hardihood of assertion is then too great for this senator.”

Sumner’s words shocked and outraged many senators from both northern and southern states. His use of sexual imagery in condemning slavery, as well as his declaration that the history of South Carolina should be “blotted out of existence” prompted Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, sponsor of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, to call Sumner a “damn fool” who “is going to get himself shot by some other damn fool.”

Congressman Preston Brooks of South Carolina was especially outraged, mainly because he was Butler’s nephew. Two days after Sumner delivered his speech, Brooks entered the Senate chamber and told Sumner that “I have read your speech twice over carefully. It is a libel on South Carolina, and Mr. Butler, who is a relative of mine.” As Sumner tried to stand, Brooks struck him on the head with a heavy cane.

As Sumner fell, he became trapped under his desk, and Brooks struck him several times. Sumner finally freed himself and tried escaping, but he fell in the aisle unconscious, and Brooks continued beating him until the cane broke. Senators trying to intervene were stopped by another South Carolina congressman, who brandished a pistol. After Brooks’s cane broke, he left the chamber with his colleagues and the senators tended to Sumner.

Sumner suffered severe head trauma, chronic pain, and various other disorders attributed to the beating. Even though he was unable to serve in the Senate due to his injuries, the Massachusetts General Assembly reelected him that November as a symbol of resistance to slavery. Sumner did not return to the Senate until three years later.

Northerners reacted to the assault with horror. The Cincinnati Gazette declared, “The South cannot tolerate free speech anywhere, and would stifle it in Washington with the bludgeon and the bowie-knife, as they are now trying to stifle it in Kansas by massacre, rapine, and murder.” Ralph Waldo Emerson said, “I do not see how a barbarous community and a civilized community can constitute one state. I think we must get rid of slavery, or we must get rid of freedom.”

Southerners celebrated Sumner’s beating, as Brooks received several canes as a gesture of gratitude. The Richmond Enquirer stated that Sumner should be caned “every morning,” praising the attack as “good in conception, better in execution, and best of all in consequences,” and denounced “these vulgar abolitionists in the Senate” who “have been suffered to run too long without collars. They must be lashed into submission.”

Brooks resigned from the House of Representatives that summer, even though a motion to expel him was rejected. He declared that had he intended to kill Sumner, he would have used a different weapon. He was tried in a District of Columbia court, found guilty of assault, and fined $300.

This incident helped propel Sumner and his Republican Party to the forefront of national politics. More northerners began siding with the new Republicans, and more southerners began resisting the Republican agenda of barring slavery in the territories, raising tariffs to protect northern industries, and nationalizing finance. The stark difference between northern and southern reactions to Sumner’s vicious beating demonstrated a rift that would ultimately lead to separation.

The Bonus Expeditionary Force of 1932

The U.S. military dispersed a group of war veterans that had assembled in Washington to demand relief from the growing economic recession of 1932.

In 1924, Congress passed the Adjusted Service Certificate Act. This pledged a bonus of up to $625 for military veterans of the World War (later known as World War I). The veterans were given certificates that they could redeem for the cash 20 years after the law took effect, which would have been 1945. The law passed over the veto of President Calvin Coolidge, who argued that “patriotism… bought and paid for is not patriotism.”

Bonus Army Protest

By 1932, the economic recession was turning into the Great Depression, and destitution was rampant. In May, veterans and their families gathered and marched on Washington to demand that Congress repeal the 20-year provision and pay out the bonuses immediately. As many as 43,000 veterans and their wives and children arrived in buses, cars, trains, or on foot by the summer. The press called this the “Bonus March,” and referring to the “American Expeditionary Force” that served in the World War, the protestors were called the “Bonus Expeditionary Force,” or simply the “Bonus Army.”

Most protestors assembled together in camps made of wood, tarpaper, or cardboard in Anacostia Flats near the U.S. Capitol. While there, they lobbied Congress to change the law. Politicians expressed sympathy for their plight, but most (including President Herbert Hoover) opposed paying the bonuses early because taxes would have to be raised to generate the revenue needed to pay them. And raising taxes during a recession generally worsens the economic downturn for everybody.

Nevertheless, the House of Representatives passed a bill that would have paid the bonuses early, but the bill was rejected in the Senate. This prompted all but about 2,000 members of the Bonus Army to return home. After lingering in Washington for over a month, Attorney General William D. Mitchell finally ordered the protestors off government property.

A fight broke out between the protestors and police trying to enforce Mitchell’s order, killing two veterans and wounding several policemen. In response, President Hoover ordered the U.S. military to expel the protestors from their camps. General Douglas MacArthur led the military force, aided by Majors Dwight D. Eisenhower and George S. Patton.

Government employees gathered to watch the military march down Pennsylvania Avenue, then shouted in protest when the troops began firing tear gas into the Bonus Army camp. Hoover ordered a halt after the troops crossed the Potomac River into Anacostia Flats, but MacArthur ignored the order and destroyed the camp. Over 1,000 people were injured by the tear gas, including two babies who suffocated.

The Bonus Army’s demands had no basis in law, and their demands for special privileges could have made the recession worse by further depleting government revenue. Nevertheless, the press demonized Hoover for unleashing the military on poor war veterans. This, combined with the growing economic downturn, directly contributed to Hoover’s defeat in that year’s presidential election.

When Hoover’s opponent, Franklin D. Roosevelt, became president in 1933, he was faced with another veterans’ protest. Roosevelt responded by providing coffee to the protestors. Despite this warm reception, Roosevelt vetoed a bill granting the veterans their bonus, invoking the same objections to an early payout that Hoover had. However, Roosevelt’s veto was overridden, and veterans got their payments early.

Sources:

A People’s History of the United States by Howard Zinn (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), p. 391-392
A Patriot’s History of the United States by Larry Schweikart and Michael Allen (New York: Penguin Group, 2004), p. 554-555
Don’t Know Much About History by Kenneth C. Davis (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), p. 347-350

The Civil War This Week: Dec 2-8, 1863

Wednesday, December 2

In northern Virginia, Federal Major General George G. Meade ended his campaign to flank General Robert E. Lee’s Confederate Army of Northern Virginia at Mine Run. The Federals withdrew north of the Rapidan River, and both armies settled into winter quarters.

A portion of Major General Ulysses S. Grant’s Federal army was moving to reinforce General Ambrose Burnside’s Army of the Ohio under siege at Knoxville in eastern Tennessee.

In accordance with Confederate President Jefferson Davis’s order on November 30, General Braxton Bragg relinquished command of the Army of Tennessee to General William Hardee at Dalton, Georgia. Bragg had been generally disliked by his subordinates, and his departure pleased most of the troops.

The Federal naval bombardment of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina continued. A Federal expedition began from Waldron, Arkansas. Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee.

Thursday, December 3

At Knoxville, General James Longstreet’s Confederates began moving north and east, away from the oncoming Federals. Longstreet’s objective was Greeneville, where he could either launch another offensive in Tennessee or rejoin General Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. Longstreet incurred southern criticism for his lackadaisical conduct during the Knoxville campaign. His withdrawal gave the Federals a complete victory in Tennessee.

The Federal bombardment of Fort Sumter continued. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Louisiana.

Friday, December 4

The intense Federal bombardment of Fort Sumter ended after over 1,300 rounds had been fired over the last seven days. Despite heavy pummeling through much of the year, few Confederate casualties had been sustained and the harbor forts showed no sign of surrender.

James Longstreet’s Confederates continued withdrawing eastward, with skirmishing at Kingston and Loudon. Other skirmishing occurred in the West Virginia, Tennessee, Mississippi, and the Nebraska Territory.

Saturday, December 5

Federals fired only 61 rounds into Fort Sumter after the intense bombardment ended yesterday. Federal naval forces were repulsed at Murrell’s Inlet, South Carolina.

Federal expeditions began from New Berne, North Carolina; Rossville, Georgia; Norfolk, Virginia; Columbia, Kentucky; and Little Rock, Arkansas.

James Longstreet’s Confederates continued toward Greeneville, with skirmishing at Walker’s Ford on the Clinch River and Loudon. Other skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, and South Carolina.

Sunday, December 6

General William T. Sherman arrived at Knoxville, ahead of his Federal troops coming to reinforce those who had been under siege. Sherman learned that frantic reports of Ambrose Burnside desperately needing help had been exaggerated. This enraged Sherman because he had forced his exhausted men to hurry to Knoxville immediately after the Battle of Chattanooga.

President Davis briefly considered sending General Robert E. Lee to help reorganize the Army of Tennessee but relented.

The Federal monitor Weehawken sank near Morris Island, South Carolina due to defective construction. James Longstreet’s Confederates continued toward Greeneville, with skirmishing near Fayetteville and Clinch Mountain. Skirmishing also occurred in West Virginia.

Monday, December 7

The fourth session of the 1st Confederate Congress assembled in Richmond and received President Davis’s annual message. Davis reported that foreign aid was still not forthcoming, finances were poor, and the armies needed reinforcements. He condemned the “disorderly retreat” at Chattanooga, in which “some of our troops inexplicably abandoned a position of great strength…”

Davis denounced the “savage ferocity” of “these pretended friends of human rights and liberties against the unfortunate negroes…” He concluded by stating that although the Confederacy had not yet secured independence, the “patriotism of the people has proved equal to every sacrifice demanded by their country’s need.”

The first session of the 38th U.S. Congress convened in Washington. A Federal expedition began from Hampshire, West Virginia. Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee and Mississippi.

Tuesday, December 8

President Abraham Lincoln issued the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, which offered pardons to Confederates who “directly or by implication, participated in the existing rebellion” if they swore allegiance to the Union and promised to obey Federal laws. This proclamation included what became known as the “Ten Percent Plan,” which proposed that if 10 percent of a state’s registered voters swore loyalty to the Union and recognized the “permanent freedom of slaves,” then that state could form a new government, send Federal representation to Washington, and resume its former place in the Union.

The “Radical” Republicans supported Lincoln’s demands for loyalty oaths and the end of slavery, but they believed that his “Ten Percent Plan” was too lenient. Democrats opposed the plan because it was undemocratic for only 10 percent of a state’s population to dictate how that state’s government should be organized. Nevertheless, it was an effort by Lincoln to appease various political factions, and it was his first significant political step toward restoring the Union.

President Davis asked Robert E. Lee to come to Richmond for a conference about the deteriorating military situation. Meanwhile, Confederate Congressman Henry S. Foote of Mississippi bitterly criticized Davis’s military and civil policies.

John C. Braine and fellow Confederate sympathizers seized the Federal merchant steamer Chesapeake off Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Federal vessels pursued Chesapeake until she was retrieved on December 17 in Sambro Harbor, Nova Scotia. William Averell led a Federal cavalry raid on railroads from New Creek, West Virginia, raiding railroads.

Primary Source: The Civil War Day by Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971)

The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia

In 1876, the “International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the Soil and Mine” was held in Philadelphia’s Fairmount Park to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. This was the largest exposition ever held up to that time, consisting of 155 buildings spread over 236 acres.

The exposition celebrated the “Progress of the Age.” Exhibits focused on technological achievements and their impact on everyday life; they were presented by 37 nations and every state in the Union. Funding for the event came from the sale of $10 million in stock by the exposition company, $2 million from Congress, $1.5 million from Philadelphia, and $1 million from Pennsylvania.

Corliss Engine

The Main Exhibition Hall was the largest structure in the world at that time. Costing $4.5 million and taking up over 21 acres, the hall was adorned with glass, iron, and steel, and it featured an electric railway to transport visitors. Exhibits included manufactured goods and scientific instruments. The featured attraction was the Corliss Steam Engine in Machinery Hall, which stood nearly 70 feet high and weighed over 600 tons. The massive engine provided steam power for the thousands of other machines on the fairgrounds and symbolized the theme of machines moving humans into a new era.

The exposition opened with President Grant starting the Corliss Engine “with his own hand.” Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro II attended the ceremonies and became the first foreign leader to visit the U.S. The emperor also generated interest in the new telephone by witnessing a demonstration and exclaiming, “My God! It talks!”

Admission was 50 cents through one of the fair’s 17 entrances. Visitors could ride a steam railroad or enjoy a drink from a soda-water fountain for 10 cents. The official guidebook advised Americans to celebrate their independence “by such demonstrations… as… become a nation so rapidly risen from struggling infancy to a position of power and prosperity, as at once to command the respect of all Governments and the admiration of the world.”

Curiosities included Siamese ivory and a wax figure of Cleopatra “in extreme dishabille.” Inventions included the bicycle, electric light, and linoleum (billed as “new floor-cloth”). New items included bananas and Charles Hines’s root beer. Machinery Hall demonstrated Elisha Otis’s elevator, the typewriter, the telephone, and the Westinghouse railroad air brake.

The U.S. Government Building displayed exhibits related to natural resources such as animals and minerals. Native Americans invited visitors to tour their teepees, and artifacts from various tribes were exhibited. Most of the states had their own buildings but were barred from displaying “offensive” exhibits related to the Civil War.

Blacks had been barred from constructing the buildings, and their exhibits were limited. But the guidebook advertised that “a band of old-time plantation ‘darkies’” performed songs at the Southern Restaurant. Women were barred from displaying their exhibits in the Main Exhibition Hall, so a Woman’s Pavilion was hastily built to showcase power looms, needlework, and weavers who were supervised by “lady engineers.”

The Woman’s Pavilion did not acknowledge the women’s suffrage movement. Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and three other members of the National Woman Suffrage Association seized the podium at the Independence Day celebration, where they read from and distributed copies of the “Declaration of Rights for Women.” President Grant did not attend the ceremony; writer James D. McCabe stated that Grant preferred “his selfish ease to a little patriotic exertion.”

The exposition lasted from May to November. Nearly 10 million people attended, or more than 20 percent of the U.S. population.

The Insular Cases and Unalienable Rights

In the early 1900s, the Supreme Court defied America’s founding philosophy by ruling that Congress has the power to restrict the unalienable rights of people residing in acquired territories.

As a result of the Spanish-American War (1898), the U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. Prior to this war, whenever the U.S. acquired new territory, the general rule was that the “Constitution follows the flag,” or that residents of acquired territories automatically had full constitutional rights.

But by the turn of the 20th century, the Progressive Era was under way, and Progressives in Washington believed that they had the power to determine whether or not someone was “ready” for the responsibility that came with full constitutional rights. In particular, they did not believe that the “uncivilized” people of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, or Guam were ready to be free. Those who were denied their rights sued to get them, only to be rejected by the Supreme Court in a series of cases decided between 1901 and 1922.

In De Lima v. Bidwell (1901), the De Lima Sugar Company sued New York customs collector George R. Bidwell for charging duties on sugar imported from Puerto Rico. De Lima argued that since Puerto Rico now belonged to the U.S., foreign duties on imports did not apply.

Despite acknowledging that Puerto Rico was no longer a foreign territory, the Court ruled that Congress could determine whether or not the foreign duties still applied. This empowered Congress to deny Puerto Rico the right to free trade within the U.S. that was guaranteed to all other U.S. states and territories. The Court’s opinion was authored by Justice Henry Brown, who also wrote the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) opinion that racial segregation was legal.

In Downes v. Bidwell (1901), an orange importer named Downes sued Bidwell for charging duties on Puerto Rican oranges. Downes argued that since there were no duties on oranges coming from any other U.S. state or territory, this violated Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, under which “all Duties, Imposts, and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States.”

The Court ruled 5 to 4 against Downes, reasoning that since Puerto Rico was not an “integral” part of the U.S., Puerto Ricans were not necessarily eligible to enjoy constitutional guarantees. This ruling was unprecedented because the Court essentially determined that the residents of some U.S. territories were too unimportant to have their rights respected.

Race was also cited in the Court’s decision: “It is obvious that in the annexation of outlying and distant possessions grave questions will arise from the differences of races, habits, laws and customs of the people, and from the differences of soil, climate and production, which may require action on the part of Congress that would be quite unnecessary in the annexation of contiguous territory inhabited only by people of the same race or by scattered bodies of native Indians.”

The opinion conformed to the Progressive notion that people should have their basic rights restricted or denied if they were a different race or if they practiced different customs than “regular” Americans who could be trusted with freedom. This assumes that rights are not unalienable, but are rather bestowed on the people by government. This directly contradicts the Declaration of Independence, which holds that certain rights are unalienable and cannot be dictated by government. It also contradicts the Constitution, which was drafted to defend America’s founding philosophy as described in the Declaration.

In Balzac v. Porto Rico (1922), Jesus M. Balzac sued when he was denied his Sixth Amendment right to a trial by jury after being charged with a crime in Puerto Rico. The Court decided that Balzac was not entitled to full constitutional rights because some provisions were not applicable to territories that were not incorporated into the U.S.

Progressives applauded these rulings because they empowered the U.S. government to exercise control over people who were supposedly unable to take care of themselves. Republican Senator Albert Beveridge of Indiana said, “God has not been preparing the English-speaking and Teutonic peoples for a thousand years for nothing but vain and idle self-contemplation and self-admiration. No!… He has made us adept in government that we may administer government among the savage servile peoples.” President Theodore Roosevelt said, “(W)e have acted up to the highest standard that has yet been set at marking the proper way in which a powerful and advanced nation should treat a weaker people.”

Giving the government the power to dictate what rights the people can have has transformed the United States from a constitutional republic to the colonial empire that it is today. The Insular Cases have enabled the U.S. government to routinely occupy and colonize foreign nations without being inconvenienced by constitutional restraint. They opened the path for the U.S. to become a nation similar to Great Britain, which was the same empire that the American colonists declared their independence from in 1776 for violating their unalienable rights.

The Civil War This Week: Nov 25-Dec 1, 1863

Wednesday, November 25

The Battle of Chattanooga continued as General Ulysses S. Grant’s Federals attempted to break the Confederate siege led by General Braxton Bragg. Grant’s original plan was for General George Thomas to attack the Confederate center once General William T. Sherman had turned the northern flank, but instead Sherman was stalled and General Joseph Hooker’s Federals were slowly turning the southern flank. To relieve pressure on Sherman, Grant ordered Thomas to advance, but only to the first line of Confederate defenses at the foot of Missionary Ridge.

Thomas’s 23,000 men quickly overwhelmed the 3,200 Confederate defenders, who retreated up the mountain. The Federals won so quickly that they continued pursuing the Confederates up the ridge, disregarding orders to stop. Knowing that stopping would mean destruction from Confederate guns raining down on them, General Philip Sheridan led the Federals all the way up the hill.

The Confederates retreated in confusion, and both Generals Bragg and John C. Breckinridge were nearly captured. Bragg ordered a general retreat, which surprised General Patrick Cleburne on the right because he was holding Sherman at bay. Cleburne was ordered to protect the withdrawal, but darkness prevented a Federal pursuit. Victorious Federals chanted, “Chickamauga! Chickamauga!” The Confederates crossed Chickamauga Creek during the night.

Grant wired General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck, “… I believe I am not premature in announcing a complete victory over Bragg… I have no idea of finding Bragg here tomorrow.” In the series of fights known collectively as the Battle of Chattanooga, the Federals suffered 5,824 casualties, while Confederates lost 6,667. This battle reinforced Grant’s reputation as the best field commander in the U.S. Army.

On the Confederate side, Bragg noted that “panic which I had never before witnessed seemed to have seized upon officers and men, and each seemed to be struggling for his personal safety regardless of his duty or his character.” This battle devastated the morale of the Army of Tennessee, and it opened a path for a Federal invasion of the southern heartland. The next logical target would be the vital industrial city of Atlanta.

Federals began another bombardment of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. The unfinished C.S.S. Rappahannock sailed from Britain to France to avoid British detention. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri.

Thursday, November 26

Patrick Cleburne’s Confederate rear guard clashed with pursuing Federals near Ringgold and Chickamauga Station, Georgia. After heavy skirmishing, the Federals halted and Braxton Bragg began concentrating his Army of Tennessee.

General James Longstreet’s Confederates prepared to attack General Ambrose Burnside’s Federal Army of the Ohio at Knoxville, Tennessee. Longstreet’s presence at Knoxville deprived Bragg of the manpower needed to hold off the Federals at Chattanooga.

In Virginia, General George G. Meade’s Federal Army of the Potomac began crossing the Rapidan River in an effort to launch another offensive against General Robert E. Lee’s Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. Meade planned to turn Lee’s right flank, and skirmishing occurred at various points.

Federals continued bombarding Fort Sumter, with 517 rounds fired between yesterday and today. President Lincoln remain confined with varioloid, a mild form of smallpox. A Federal expedition began from Columbia, Kentucky. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, North Carolina, and Missouri.

Friday, November 27

Robert E. Lee’s Confederates moved east to block the Federal effort to outflank them; skirmishing occurred at various points. George G. Meade advanced toward Mine Run, and Lee hurried to reinforce defenses there. Meade blamed General William H. French for delaying an attack and later cited this as the main reason why the campaign failed.

Skirmishing occurred at Ringgold Gap and Taylor’s Ridge in Georgia, as the Confederates withdrew and the Chattanooga Campaign ended. Meanwhile, Ulysses S. Grant ordered two divisions to aid the Federals under siege at Knoxville.

The Confederate defeat at Chattanooga horrified the Davis administration in Richmond. President Jefferson Davis urged Braxton Bragg to concentrate his remaining forces at Dalton, Georgia as soon as possible.

General John Hunt Morgan and six of his Confederate partisans escaped from Ohio State Penitentiary in Columbus; they had been captured while raiding Ohio in July. Morgan and four others managed to reach the Confederate lines in Kentucky. Rumors spread that the men had escaped by tunneling through air shafts, but some claimed that they had simply bribed their way out.

Federals continued bombarding Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, firing 280 rounds. Skirmishing occurred in Kentucky.

Saturday, November 28

George G. Meade’s Federals probed the strong Confederate defenses along Mine Run in northern Virginia. More delays ensued when the Federals were unable to find a suitable target to attack, and it was becoming clear that the offensive would be halted before it even started.

Ulysses S. Grant stopped the Federal pursuit of Braxton Bragg’s Army of Tennessee into Georgia due to supply shortages and a lack of adequate supply lines in Georgia. Grant ordered William T. Sherman’s Federals to join those reinforcing Ambrose Burnside at Knoxville.

Braxton Bragg telegraphed Richmond from Dalton, Georgia, “I deem it due to the cause and to myself to ask for relief from command and investigation into the causes of the defeat.”

Federals intensified their bombardment of Fort Sumter, but there was no sign of surrender or evacuation. General Nathan Bedford Forrest’s Confederates operated against the Memphis & Charleston Railroad in western Tennessee. Skirmishing occurred in Mississippi.

Sunday, November 29

James Longstreet’s Confederates attacked the Federals besieged at Knoxville, Tennessee. Longstreet hoped to capture the city before Federal reinforcements arrived. The Federals strung telegraph wires between tree stumps to trip attacking Confederates; this was one of the first uses of wire entanglements in warfare. The Confederates were ultimately repulsed, with Longstreet facing criticism for both the attack and the way that it was conducted.

President Lincoln’s health was improving after a bout with smallpox. Skirmishing broke out between George G. Meade’s Federals and Robert E. Lee’s Confederates as Meade continued trying to find a weak spot in the Confederate defenses. Skirmishing also occurred in Missouri.

Monday, November 30

Braxton Bragg received a wire at Dalton, Georgia from General Samuel Cooper on President Davis’s behalf: ”… Your request to be relieved has been submitted to the President, who, upon your representation, directs me to notify you that you are relieved from command, which you will transfer to Lieutenant-General (William) Hardee…”

Federals occupied Fort Esperanza in Matagorda Bay, Texas after Confederates evacuated the previous night. This was one of several Federal victories on Texas’s Gulf Coast by General Nathaniel Banks’s Army of the Gulf. However, these victories were insignificant because the coastal towns were already under Federal blockade, and the Federal presence on the coast only moved Mexican trade with the Confederacy farther west up the Rio Grande River. The occupation of southeastern Texas merely kept the Federals busy when they could have been more useful elsewhere.

Skirmishing occurred in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Louisiana.

Tuesday, December 1

George G. Meade halted attempts to attack Robert E. Lee’s Confederate defenses at Mine Run. Meade’s Federals began withdrawing back across the Rapidan River to winter quarters.

Braxton Bragg informed Richmond that he would relinquish command tomorrow. In a letter to President Davis, Bragg addressed his subordinates’ criticism of his leadership: ”The disaster admits of no palliation, and is justly disparaging to me as a commander… I fear we both erred in the conclusion for me to retain command here after the clamor raised against me.”

Federals continued bombarding Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Confederate spy Belle Boyd was released from prison in Washington and sent to Richmond. Boyd, who was suffering from typhoid, was ordered to stay out of Federal lines.

Federal expeditions began from Pulaski, Tennessee and Natchez, Mississippi. Skirmishing occurred at Maynardville as part of the Knoxville Campaign. Skirmishing also occurred in Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Arkansas.

Primary Source: The Civil War Day by Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971)

Prelude to Federal Income Taxes: Springer v. U.S.

In 1881, the Supreme Court issued a curious ruling that it was constitutional to directly tax income, even though the Constitution clearly stated at the time that direct taxes must be distributed among the states in proportion to each state’s population.

The federal government had levied the first taxes on income during the Civil War as a means to finance the war effort. Many questioned whether this was legal because the Constitution did not permit the federal government to directly tax individual income. Nevertheless, the tax was imposed as an emergency wartime measure.

When William M. Springer had refused to pay his income tax, federal tax collectors put his property up for sale to settle Springer’s debt. Springer sued on the grounds that the income tax was a direct tax not apportioned among the states according to population under Article I, Section 8, which prohibited a non-uniform tax. Springer based his argument on the definition of a “direct tax” by free market economists such as Adam Smith.

The Court ruled against Springer by rejecting the notion that an income tax was a “direct tax.” In the majority opinion, the Court “reasoned” that even though the apportionment clause was a part of the Constitution, it was not intended to be in the document’s final draft. To the Court, intentions outweighed the signed and ratified law of the land.

The Court also cited Alexander Hamilton, who contended that direct taxes should include “whether on the whole property of individuals or on their whole real or personal estate.” This quote, which has no basis in the Constitution, was used to uphold the federal government’s authority to put an individual’s property up for sale to settle a debt on an income tax. Thus, the income tax was not a direct tax and could be collected through an estate sale if it was not paid.

To the majority on the Court, an income tax was “within the category of an excise or duty,” which did not require state apportionment, and “whenever the government has imposed a tax which it recognized as a direct tax, it has never been applied to any objects but real estate and slaves.” Essentially, a tax cannot be considered a direct tax unless the federal tax collectors define it as such.

The argument over direct and indirect taxes continued for a generation until 1913, when the Sixteenth Amendment was ratified. This overrode all previous Court decisions by unilaterally allowing Congress to levy taxes on income without any apportionment requirements. Ever since, the federal government has been able to bypass the states and directly tax individuals through the Internal Revenue Service. This has vastly increased the federal revenue stream and helped to grow government into the massive bureaucratic network that exists today.

Primary Source: Theodore and Woodrow by Andrew Napolitano (Chapter 15)

The Civil War This Week: Nov 18-24, 1863

Wednesday, November 18

A special train carrying the Lincolns left Washington for and the dedication of the new national cemetery at Gettysburg tomorrow. Upon his arrival, President Abraham Lincoln delivered remarks to a crowd outside the Wills House where he was staying.

Confederates operated against Federal gunboats near Hog Point, Mississippi. Federal expeditions began from Vienna, Virginia and Skipwith’s Landing, Mississippi. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Georgia, Louisiana, and Missouri.

Thursday, November 19

An estimated 9,000 people gathered for the dedication of Gettysburg National Cemetery in Pennsylvania. The main speaker was famed orator Edward Everett, who delivered a two-hour account of the battle. When Everett finished, President Lincoln rose to speak. His speech was less than two minutes long, focusing not on the specific battle, but instead on the war’s overall significance.

The speech was not warmly received by the audience or the press, and Lincoln believed that it was a “flat failure.” Opponents noted that Lincoln stressed a belief in government “of the people, by the people and for the people” while waging a war to deny those rights to the South. But over time, the Gettysburg Address would become one of the most celebrated speeches delivered by an American statesman.

In Charleston Harbor, Federals launched 694 shells at Fort Sumter. A small Federal force of about 200 men tried taking Sumter in rowboats, but they were repulsed by the Confederate defenders.

Confederate President Jefferson Davis wrote officials in the Trans-Mississippi expressing disappointment over losing most of Arkansas. A Federal expedition began from Memphis, Tennessee. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas.

Friday, November 20

President Davis asked General Joseph E. Johnston, commanding Confederate forces in the Western Theater, to assist General Braxton Bragg’s Army of Tennessee at Chattanooga.

After returning to the White House, President Lincoln received a note from Edward Everett praising his eloquence in delivering his Gettysburg Address and stating that Lincoln had come closer to the central idea of the war in two minutes than Everett had in two hours.

Federals fired 1,344 rounds into Fort Sumter, killing three and wounding 11. Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee and Louisiana.

Saturday, November 21

Major General Ulysses S. Grant developed plans to break his 70,000 besieged Federals out of Chattanooga. General William T. Sherman’s Federals would attack the Confederates north of Missionary Ridge, General George Thomas would attack at the center of Missionary Ridge, and General Joseph Hooker would attack the Confederate left at Lookout Mountain. Braxton Bragg and his Confederates were largely unaware of Grant’s plan.

President Lincoln contracted varioloid, a mild form of smallpox, and was confined to his bed for eight days. Federal expeditions began from Bealeton, Virginia; Fort Pillow, Tennessee; and Island No. 10, Missouri. Skirmishing occurred in Arkansas and Virginia.

Sunday, November 22

General Nathaniel Banks’s Federal Army of the Gulf moved against Fort Esperanza and Matagorda Island in Texas. By month’s end, Banks controlled the fort, the island, and the nearby area, but these conquests held little strategic significance.

Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Missouri.

Monday, November 23

Ulysses S. Grant’s Federals in Chattanooga began their breakout attempt. The Federal center under George Thomas advanced on Missionary Ridge and captured Orchard Knob after pretending to be on dress parade. This signaled William T. Sherman to advance on the Confederate right while Joseph Hooker’s Federals feinted against the Confederate left.

Federals and Confederates traded assaults at Knoxville, where General James Longstreet’s Confederates were besieging General Ambrose Burnside’s Federals. President Lincoln worried that Burnside could lose the key city.

A Federal expedition began from Springfield, Missouri. Skirmishing occurred in Louisiana and Texas.

Tuesday, November 24

At Chattanooga, Joseph Hooker’s Federals crossed Lookout Creek and scaled Lookout Mountain. They faced Confederate fire, but they outnumbered the enemy by nearly six-to-one. The Federals captured the mountain, and since they had advanced and fought through heavy fog, the fight became known as the “Battle Above the Clouds.” The Federals suffered 480 casualties, while the Confederates lost 1,251, including 1,054 captured or missing.

Hooker’s men were only supposed to feint against Lookout Mountain, but they captured the position instead. This gave the Federals control of the Chattanooga Valley, and Ulysses S. Grant quickly ordered Hooker to continue advancing against the withdrawing Confederates in the hopes of cutting off their retreat into Georgia.

North Carolina Governor Zebulon Vance informed the state legislature, “We know, at last, precisely what we would get by submission, and therein has our enemy done us good service–abolition of slavery, confiscation of property, and territorial vassalage.” The Richmond Examiner stated, “Our sole policy and cunningest diplomacy is fighting; our most insinuating negotiator is the Confederate army in line of battle.”

Federals launched 270 rounds at Fort Sumter, killing three and wounding two. A Federal expedition began from Salem, Missouri. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas.

Primary Source: The Civil War Day by Day by E.B. Long and Barbara Long (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971)