David Tickner's Blog, page 35
February 15, 2021
Zen
I was surprised to learn that the word zen has its origins in the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language family.The word zen comes from the PIE root dheie (to see, to look) and from Sanskrit dhyana (thought, meditation) and Sanskrit dhyati (he meditates). From these origins, the word migrated to China and evolved as ch’an. The word Zen appears in English in 1727 from Japan as the name of a school of Mahayana Buddhism.
Zen, used as an adjective (e.g., zen garden, zen calmness, zen atmosphere), is from 1872.
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
February 14, 2021
Incredible, Incredulous
“Wow!! That’s incredible! Who would have believed it??!! I’m still incredulous.”Incredible and incredulous are two of many words with origins related to the heart. These words have their origins in the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root kerd (heart).
The PIE term kerd-dhe means ‘to believe’; literally, ‘to put one’s heart’. From this PIE root comes Latin credere (to believe) and credo (I believe). The word Creed, meaning a statement of belief from a Christian church service, comes to English in the early 13th century. The word creed meaning a more general formula or statement of belief is from the 1580s.
(The words believe and belief, by the way, have their origins in another heart-related word—the word love. In their origins, the words believe and belief mean ‘to love deeply’. In their origins, the words belief and creed are about the heart, not just the head. But that’s another story.)
The adjective credible, meaning believable, worthy of belief, capable of being believed, involving no impossibility; of known or obvious veracity or competence, comes to English in the late 14th century from Latin credibilis (worthy to be believed) and credere (to believe). If someone you are planning to hire has good credentials, you can assume they will be competent.
So, what about the word incredible? Something that is credible is believable. On the other hand, incredible comes from Latin in- (not) + credibilis = incredibilis (extraordinary; not to be believed; e.g., “I can’t believe it!”). Something that is incredible can be both ‘unbelievable’ and ‘beyond belief’. The word incredible, as a ‘heart’ word, arouses strong feelings rather than rational thought: to ask, “Why would she do such a thing?” or, to say, “That is so amazing!”, is not in the first instance to ask for reasons but to express a strong feeling.
A person who is credulous easily believes or is trustful, perhaps naively. On the other hand, the word incredulous, from the 1570s, means unbelieving. The word comes from Latin in- (not) + credulous (disposed to believe or uncritical with regard to beliefs) = incredulous; e.g., “My heart’s not in this.”
In brief, what’s the difference between incredible and incredulous? Incredible means ‘too extraordinary to be believed’ whereas incredulous means to be ‘skeptical’.
Other words from PIE kerd (heart) include accord, cardiac, concord, cordial, courage, credential, credible, credit, discord, and record.
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
February 13, 2021
Snow
Snow is another one of those words that come to us almost unchanged over thousands of years. Snow has always been snow.Here’s the genealogy: The word snow has its origins in the Proto-Indo-European root sniegh (snow, to snow) and later Proto-Germanic snaiwaz.
From these sources come several words in different Germanic languages: Old Saxon and Old High German snea, Old Frisian sne, Middle Dutch snee, Dutch sneeuw, German Schnee, Old Norse snjor, Gothic snaiws.
And, at last, to Old English as snaw (snow, that which falls as snow, a fall of snow, a snowstorm) which later evolved to the word snow.
Some of snow’s cousins include Old Irish snechta, Irish sneachd, Welsh nyf, Lithuanian sniegas, Old Prussian snaygis, Old Church Slavonic snegu, Russian snieg, Slovak sneh. A distant cousin is Sanskrit snihyati (he gets wet).
All this prompted by looking out the window this morning. Hey, I live in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia. It doesn’t snow that often here.
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
February 11, 2021
Deductive, Inductive
Both words have their origins in the PIE root deuk (to lead) and Latin ducere (to lead).1
Deduce, deductive
Deduce is from Latin de- (down) + ducere = to lead down, to derive. The verb deduce comes to English in the early 15th century meaning to show, to prove, to demonstrate. The sense of deduce meaning to draw a conclusion from something already known is from the 1520s. The adjective deductive (deduction based on inference from accepted principles) is from the 1660s.
Induce, Inductive
Induce is from Latin in- (into, in upon) + ducere = inducer (to lead into, bring in, introduce, conduct; persuade; suppose, imagine). The verb induce (to lead by persuasions or other influences) comes to English in the late 14th century. Induce, meaning to bring about by any method, is from the early 15th century; meaning to infer by reasoning is from the 1560s. The use of induce in relation to electro-magnetic forces is from 1777.
The adjective inductive (bringing on, inducing) is from the early 15th century. Inductive, as a term used in logic, is from 1764.
The noun induction, from the late 14th century, meant advancement toward the grace of God, and later, meant the formal installation of a clergyman. Induction, in relation to electrical influence, is from 1801. Induction in relation to military service is from 1934 American English.
How are deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning different?
Deduction starts from a general principle in order to arrive at some individual fact. For example, if we know for a fact that A = B and that B = C, we can ‘deduce’ that A = C. Or, acute angles are less that 90o. This angle is 45o; therefore, it is an acute angle. The general principle is that the ‘premises’ or ‘facts’ need to be ‘true’ in terms of logic and evidence. The problem with deductive reasoning is that you can overgeneralize or end up with invalid assumptions; for example: here are two ‘true’ premises—all swans are white, and David is white. Therefore, David is a swan.
On the other hand, induction begins with known instances and facts and arrives at generalizations. For example, if we know that certain facts or premises seem to be related, we can construct a ‘hypothesis’; i.e., a generalization from certain facts. However, with a hypothesis, further research (e.g., gathering more supportive data and evidence) is necessary in order to confirm the ‘truth’ of the original hypothesis. In this sense, a hypothesis can become a ‘theory’ or an explanation of something if addition research supports it. For example, here are two premises or ‘facts’: my father lives in a senior’s home. He is happy. Does inductive reasoning suggest that all men living in senior’s homes are happy? No. It suggests a hypothesis that would need to be checked out.
In brief
Deduction is from the general to the specific; induction is from the specific to the general. “Induction starts with known instances and arrives at generalizations; deduction starts from a general principle and arrives at some individual fact”2. Deductive reasoning can be more sound if the premises are ‘true’. Premises in inductive reasoning may be true but may not be universally true; therefore, more research and reasoning would be required.3
1 PIE deuk and Latin ducere are also the origin of words such as: abduct, aqueduct, conducive, conduct, conductor, duct, duke, education, introduce, production, reduction, seduction, and others.
2 https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=induction
3 https://examples.yourdictionary.com/deductive-reasoning-examples.html
Deduce, deductive
Deduce is from Latin de- (down) + ducere = to lead down, to derive. The verb deduce comes to English in the early 15th century meaning to show, to prove, to demonstrate. The sense of deduce meaning to draw a conclusion from something already known is from the 1520s. The adjective deductive (deduction based on inference from accepted principles) is from the 1660s.
Induce, Inductive
Induce is from Latin in- (into, in upon) + ducere = inducer (to lead into, bring in, introduce, conduct; persuade; suppose, imagine). The verb induce (to lead by persuasions or other influences) comes to English in the late 14th century. Induce, meaning to bring about by any method, is from the early 15th century; meaning to infer by reasoning is from the 1560s. The use of induce in relation to electro-magnetic forces is from 1777.
The adjective inductive (bringing on, inducing) is from the early 15th century. Inductive, as a term used in logic, is from 1764.
The noun induction, from the late 14th century, meant advancement toward the grace of God, and later, meant the formal installation of a clergyman. Induction, in relation to electrical influence, is from 1801. Induction in relation to military service is from 1934 American English.
How are deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning different?
Deduction starts from a general principle in order to arrive at some individual fact. For example, if we know for a fact that A = B and that B = C, we can ‘deduce’ that A = C. Or, acute angles are less that 90o. This angle is 45o; therefore, it is an acute angle. The general principle is that the ‘premises’ or ‘facts’ need to be ‘true’ in terms of logic and evidence. The problem with deductive reasoning is that you can overgeneralize or end up with invalid assumptions; for example: here are two ‘true’ premises—all swans are white, and David is white. Therefore, David is a swan.
On the other hand, induction begins with known instances and facts and arrives at generalizations. For example, if we know that certain facts or premises seem to be related, we can construct a ‘hypothesis’; i.e., a generalization from certain facts. However, with a hypothesis, further research (e.g., gathering more supportive data and evidence) is necessary in order to confirm the ‘truth’ of the original hypothesis. In this sense, a hypothesis can become a ‘theory’ or an explanation of something if addition research supports it. For example, here are two premises or ‘facts’: my father lives in a senior’s home. He is happy. Does inductive reasoning suggest that all men living in senior’s homes are happy? No. It suggests a hypothesis that would need to be checked out.
In brief
Deduction is from the general to the specific; induction is from the specific to the general. “Induction starts with known instances and arrives at generalizations; deduction starts from a general principle and arrives at some individual fact”2. Deductive reasoning can be more sound if the premises are ‘true’. Premises in inductive reasoning may be true but may not be universally true; therefore, more research and reasoning would be required.3
1 PIE deuk and Latin ducere are also the origin of words such as: abduct, aqueduct, conducive, conduct, conductor, duct, duke, education, introduce, production, reduction, seduction, and others.
2 https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=induction
3 https://examples.yourdictionary.com/deductive-reasoning-examples.html
Desire
What do the following idioms have in common? Aim for the stars, thank your lucky stars, her star is rising, stars in your eyes, hitch your wagon to a star, star-crossed lovers. Perhaps they all express a desire of some kind. Speaking of stars, do you ever check your horoscope?So, what’s the connection between stars and desire?
The word desire comes from Latin sidus (heavenly body, star, constellation) and de sidere (from the stars). Latin desiderare means to long for, wish for, demand, expect; i.e., to expect in the sense of waiting for what the stars will bring.
The verb desire (to wish or long for, to express a wish to obtain) comes to English around 1200 from Old French desirer and Latin desiderare. The noun desire (a craving or yearning; an emotion directed toward attainment or possession of an object; sensual appetite, physical desire, lust) comes to English around 1300 from Old French and Latin. A desire; that is, that which is longed for, is from the mid-1300s.
The verb consider (to fix the mind upon, to meditate upon), from Latin considerare (literally, to observe the stars) may come from or be related to Latin sidus (heavenly body, star, constellation). However, some etymologists doubt this connection.
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
February 7, 2021
Understand, Overstand
In some ways, understand seems like such an odd word. When you understand something, what are you standing under?!
How interesting that you can take two words, ‘under’ and ‘stand’, each of which means something different, and combine them to make a third word which is unrelated to the words which comprise it. Or is it? I think I need to get to the bottom of this.
Under
Under has always been under. The word under, as part of the word understand, has its origins in two different Proto-Indo-European words which over the centuries combined to form the Old English word under.
First, Old English under comes from PIE ndher (under). Among the many other meanings and uses of this Old English word, the one which is most relevant to understanding ‘understand’ is the sense of under as ‘among’ (e.g., the lost coin was found among the fallen leaves).
Second, the use of Old English under specifically as ‘among’ comes from PIE nter (among, between), the source of Greek entera (intestines) and Latin inter (among, between).
In brief, in its origins, under is related to things being among, between, and under each other.
Stand
Stand is also relatively unchanged from its origins in PIE sta (to stand, to make firm or to be firm). Among other things, Old English standan meant to stand firm, to abide, to be valid, to exist (to be present), stand up.
Understand
Originally, the Old English word understandan probably meant literally ‘to stand firm in the midst of’; and later meant to comprehend, to grasp the idea of, to ‘get it’. In this case, the under in understand is usually taken to mean between or among, from PIE nter and Latin inter. The related Greek word episamai (to be close to) means “I know how, I know it”; literally, “I stand upon”—this is where I stand on the matter.
The word understanding (mutual agreement) is first seen in English in 1803 and comes from Old English understandincge (comprehension). The word understandable meaning ‘able to understand’ is from the 14th century; and, meaning ‘able to be understood’ is from the 15th century.
In brief, to understand is to be interacting or engaged in something, to be close to something, or to be in the middle of something. Understanding, in such a context, is not just knowing something (i.e., knowing ‘what’ or ‘how’) but a deeper and more thorough knowing (i.e., knowing ‘why’). It can also be said that understanding is as much about ‘doing’ as about ‘knowing’.
The word under is also related in meaning to the word bottom, a word which in its origins is related to the 13th century words fundament and fundamental from Latin fundamentum (foundation, groundwork, support, beginning). In Medieval English, fundament also meant a person’s buttocks.
To understand is to get to the bottom of something.
Overstand??
Is there such a word? The word epistemology (the study and theory of the nature of knowledge) comes from Greek epistasthai (to know how to understand; literally ‘to overstand’) from epi (over, near) + histasthai (to stand). The word epistemology was coined in 1856 by the Scottish philosopher James F. Ferrier (1808 – 1864).
Perhaps you have to ‘stand over’ or ‘stand back’ from something you ‘understand’ in order to know what you know!
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
How interesting that you can take two words, ‘under’ and ‘stand’, each of which means something different, and combine them to make a third word which is unrelated to the words which comprise it. Or is it? I think I need to get to the bottom of this.
Under
Under has always been under. The word under, as part of the word understand, has its origins in two different Proto-Indo-European words which over the centuries combined to form the Old English word under.
First, Old English under comes from PIE ndher (under). Among the many other meanings and uses of this Old English word, the one which is most relevant to understanding ‘understand’ is the sense of under as ‘among’ (e.g., the lost coin was found among the fallen leaves).
Second, the use of Old English under specifically as ‘among’ comes from PIE nter (among, between), the source of Greek entera (intestines) and Latin inter (among, between).
In brief, in its origins, under is related to things being among, between, and under each other.
Stand
Stand is also relatively unchanged from its origins in PIE sta (to stand, to make firm or to be firm). Among other things, Old English standan meant to stand firm, to abide, to be valid, to exist (to be present), stand up.
Understand
Originally, the Old English word understandan probably meant literally ‘to stand firm in the midst of’; and later meant to comprehend, to grasp the idea of, to ‘get it’. In this case, the under in understand is usually taken to mean between or among, from PIE nter and Latin inter. The related Greek word episamai (to be close to) means “I know how, I know it”; literally, “I stand upon”—this is where I stand on the matter.
The word understanding (mutual agreement) is first seen in English in 1803 and comes from Old English understandincge (comprehension). The word understandable meaning ‘able to understand’ is from the 14th century; and, meaning ‘able to be understood’ is from the 15th century.
In brief, to understand is to be interacting or engaged in something, to be close to something, or to be in the middle of something. Understanding, in such a context, is not just knowing something (i.e., knowing ‘what’ or ‘how’) but a deeper and more thorough knowing (i.e., knowing ‘why’). It can also be said that understanding is as much about ‘doing’ as about ‘knowing’.
The word under is also related in meaning to the word bottom, a word which in its origins is related to the 13th century words fundament and fundamental from Latin fundamentum (foundation, groundwork, support, beginning). In Medieval English, fundament also meant a person’s buttocks.
To understand is to get to the bottom of something.
Overstand??
Is there such a word? The word epistemology (the study and theory of the nature of knowledge) comes from Greek epistasthai (to know how to understand; literally ‘to overstand’) from epi (over, near) + histasthai (to stand). The word epistemology was coined in 1856 by the Scottish philosopher James F. Ferrier (1808 – 1864).
Perhaps you have to ‘stand over’ or ‘stand back’ from something you ‘understand’ in order to know what you know!
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
Funambulist
Perhaps a preamble is in order. If ambitious funambulists were perambulating in an amphitheater we would not likely be too concerned. However, if they chose to funambulate, the ambience would be more ambiguous especially if they also chose to circumambulate while pushing a pram. You certainly wouldn’t want them to do this while sonambulating. They’d likely need an ambulance.A funambulist is a tightrope walker. The term, from 1793, has its origins in Latin funis (a rope, line, cord) and ambulare (to walk). In ancient times, a funambulist was known as a funambulus.
Latin ambulare comes from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots ambhi (around) + el (to go). The English verb ‘to amble’ (to move easily and gently without hard shocks) is from the early 14th century.
All of the ‘amb’ and ‘amph’ words in the preamble above are from these PIE and Latin sources. And pram is short for perambulator even though technically speaking, the perambulator is actually the person pushing the pram.
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
February 4, 2021
Ego
Ego is one of those words which for some reason has developed or earned a bad reputation. To say that someone has a big ego or that they are egotistical implies something derogatory.Paradoxically, the word ego is first seen in English in a more positive sense; that is, as seen in the 1530s when the Latin term ‘alter ego’ (a second self, a counterpart, or a trusted friend) came unchanged to English.
By the early 18th century, the word ego was used as a metaphysical term meaning ‘the self; that which feels, acts, or thinks.’
Egocentric is from 1890. Ego, used in the Freudian psychoanalytic sense, is from 1894. Ego, meaning conceit, is from 1901. Ego-trip is from 1969.
The word ego comes from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) pronoun eg (I; e.g., “I am”). PIE eg is the source of Proto-Germanic pronouns such as Old Frisian ik, Old Norse, ek, Norwegian eg, Danish jeg, German ich, and Old English ic—all meaning the first person singular pronoun ‘I’.
In addition, PIE eg is also the source of Greek ego and Latin ego, both meaning the pronoun ‘I’.
By the 12th century, Old English ic had been shortened to ‘i’ in northern England and by the 14th century ‘i’ was being used across England. ‘I’ began to be capitalized in the mid-13th century. In contrast, other pronouns such as his or her or they are capitalized only at the beginning of a sentence—perhaps this might suggests that ‘I’ itself is an egotistical pronoun: “Look at me, I’m always capitalized!”
In brief, the word ego from Latin is now considered a scientific or academic term. The pronoun ‘I’ from its Proto-Germanic sources is now the everyday word we use in writing and conversation.
(If for some reason, we want to use the word ego in a negative sense, perhaps ‘egocentric’ would be the better word.)
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
Image: ‘Mandala of the self’. Carl Jung. (1930). The Red Book.
January 31, 2021
Friend or Fiend?
What a difference an ‘r’ makes!
The word friend has its origins the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root pri (to love) and PIE priy-ont (loving)*. From these origins come Proto-Germanic frijojands (lover, friend) and related words from Old Norse froendi, Old Danish frynt, Old Frisian friund, Dutch vriend, and German Freund, all meaning friend. The word friend comes to English from Old English freond (one attached to another by feelings of personal regard and preference).
It never ceases to amaze me how words like this that are so close to the heart have changed so little over the centuries.
The word friendship comes from Old English freondscipe (friendship, mutual liking and regard; conjugal love; i.e., it’s great when your spouse or partner is also your best friend!).
It is also worth noting that the words free and freedom come from the same PIE and Germanic sources.
*A footnote: Do you know anyone named Priya? PIE priy-ont is the root of the Sanskrit name Priya (beloved), a woman’s name in some South Asian languages.
Fiend
What happens when you take the ‘r’ out of friend? You get a fiend.
The word fiend has its origins in the PIE root pe(i) (to hurt) and Proto-Germanic fijand (hating, hostile) and the related words from Old Frisian fiand, Old Saxon fiond, Dutch vijand, Old Norse fjandi, and Old High German fiant, all meaning enemy. From these sources comes the Old English word feond (enemy, foe, adversary; from feogan, to hate) from which comes fiend.
By the early 13th century, the word fiend had come to mean the devil or Satan (the enemy of humankind) or a diabolical (devil-like) person. Fiend has now become a Halloween-like word for a scary person or being. However, the word foe, from feond, retains the old sense of fiend as enemy.
In the ancient Germanic languages, fiend was the opposite of friend; “both are from the active … Germanic verbs for ‘to love’ and ‘to hate’” (Online Etymological Dictionary).
Reference:
Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
The word friend has its origins the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root pri (to love) and PIE priy-ont (loving)*. From these origins come Proto-Germanic frijojands (lover, friend) and related words from Old Norse froendi, Old Danish frynt, Old Frisian friund, Dutch vriend, and German Freund, all meaning friend. The word friend comes to English from Old English freond (one attached to another by feelings of personal regard and preference).
It never ceases to amaze me how words like this that are so close to the heart have changed so little over the centuries.
The word friendship comes from Old English freondscipe (friendship, mutual liking and regard; conjugal love; i.e., it’s great when your spouse or partner is also your best friend!).
It is also worth noting that the words free and freedom come from the same PIE and Germanic sources.
*A footnote: Do you know anyone named Priya? PIE priy-ont is the root of the Sanskrit name Priya (beloved), a woman’s name in some South Asian languages.
Fiend
What happens when you take the ‘r’ out of friend? You get a fiend.
The word fiend has its origins in the PIE root pe(i) (to hurt) and Proto-Germanic fijand (hating, hostile) and the related words from Old Frisian fiand, Old Saxon fiond, Dutch vijand, Old Norse fjandi, and Old High German fiant, all meaning enemy. From these sources comes the Old English word feond (enemy, foe, adversary; from feogan, to hate) from which comes fiend.
By the early 13th century, the word fiend had come to mean the devil or Satan (the enemy of humankind) or a diabolical (devil-like) person. Fiend has now become a Halloween-like word for a scary person or being. However, the word foe, from feond, retains the old sense of fiend as enemy.
In the ancient Germanic languages, fiend was the opposite of friend; “both are from the active … Germanic verbs for ‘to love’ and ‘to hate’” (Online Etymological Dictionary).
Reference:
Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
January 27, 2021
Brew or Steep?
Do you brew your tea or steep it? How about your coffee? Brewed or steeped? Hmmm…Brew
Originally, to brew something meant to boil it. The word brew seems almost unchanged from its origins in the Proto-Indo-European root (PIE) bhreu (to boil, bubble, effervesce, burn) and Proto-Germanic breuwan (to brew), the source of Old Norse brugga, Middle Dutch brouwen, Old High German briuwan, and German brauen.
The word brew (to produce a beverage by fermentation; to prepare by mixing and boiling) comes to English from these ancient sources via Old English breowan.
A first step in the brewing of beer is the steeping of a starch source, such as barley, before yeast is added to start the fermentation process. Following this, these and other ingredients are brewed (i.e., boiled) and at the end of the process, you’ve got beer.
By the way, in the past, a female brewer was known as a brewster.
The use of ‘brew’ in the sense of, for example, ‘trouble brewing’ is from around 1300.
Steep
On the other hand, to steep something means to soak it. Hopefully, no one boils their tea or coffee even though we often use the phrase ‘brew a pot of tea’ or ‘brew some coffee’. When you make tea, the water temperature for steeping depends on the type of tea—some types require steeping in water which is just off the boil, other teas require a milder temperature so that the leaves do not burn (e.g., green teas). Similarly, when making coffee, boiling water can burn the coffee and give it a bitter taste.
The word steep (to soak in a liquid) comes to English in the early 14th century and is of uncertain origin, perhaps from Old Norse steypa or Proto-Germanic staupijanan (to pour out).
In brief
Do you boil your tea or soak it? Beer is brewed. Tea and coffee are steeped!
Reference: Online Etymological Dictionary, https://www.etymonline.com/
