The Extended Mind: The Power of Thinking Outside the Brain

by Annie Murphy Paul

our teachers are the artists and scientists and authors who have figured out these methods for themselves, and the researchers who are, at last, making these methods the object of study.

our teachers are the artists and scientists and authors who have figured out these methods for themselves, and the researchers who are, at last, making these methods the object of study.

By reaching beyond the brain to recruit these “extra-neural” resources, we are able to focus more intently, comprehend more deeply, and create more imaginatively—to entertain ideas that would be literally unthinkable by the brain alone.

By reaching beyond the brain to recruit these “extra-neural” resources, we are able to focus more intently, comprehend more deeply, and create more imaginatively—to entertain ideas that would be literally unthinkable by the brain alone.

Rather than exhorting ourselves and others to use our heads, we should be applying extra-neural resources to the project of thinking outside the skull’s narrow circumference.

Rather than exhorting ourselves and others to use our heads, we should be applying extra-neural resources to the project of thinking outside the skull’s narrow circumference.

The human brain is limited in its ability to pay attention, limited in its capacity to remember, limited in its facility with abstract concepts, and limited in its power to persist at a challenging task.

The human brain is limited in its ability to pay attention, limited in its capacity to remember, limited in its facility with abstract concepts, and limited in its power to persist at a challenging task.

But accurately recalling complex information? Engaging in rigorous logical reasoning? Grasping abstract or counterintuitive ideas? Not so much.

But accurately recalling complex information? Engaging in rigorous logical reasoning? Grasping abstract or counterintuitive ideas? Not so much.

The gap between what our biological brains are capable of, and what modern life demands, is large and getting larger each day.

The gap between what our biological brains are capable of, and what modern life demands, is large and getting larger each day.

With every experimental discovery, the divide between the scientific account of the world and our intuitive “folk” understanding grows more pronounced.

With every experimental discovery, the divide between the scientific account of the world and our intuitive “folk” understanding grows more pronounced.

In fact, it’s the way we handle our mental shortcomings—which are, remember, endemic to our species—that is the problem.

In fact, it’s the way we handle our mental shortcomings—which are, remember, endemic to our species—that is the problem.

The smart move is not to lean ever harder on the brain but to learn to reach beyond it.

The smart move is not to lean ever harder on the brain but to learn to reach beyond it.

Schools don’t teach students how to restore their depleted attention with exposure to nature and the outdoors, or how to arrange their study spaces so that they extend intelligent thought.

Schools don’t teach students how to restore their depleted attention with exposure to nature and the outdoors, or how to arrange their study spaces so that they extend intelligent thought.

Employees aren’t shown how the social practices of imitation and vicarious learning can shortcut the process of acquiring expertise. Classroom groups and workplace teams aren’t coached in scientifically validated methods of increasing the collective intelligence of their members.

Employees aren’t shown how the social practices of imitation and vicarious learning can shortcut the process of acquiring expertise. Classroom groups and workplace teams aren’t coached in scientifically validated methods of increasing the collective intelligence of their members.

“essentialism”—that is, the conviction that each entity we encounter possesses an inner essence that makes it what it is.

“essentialism”—that is, the conviction that each entity we encounter possesses an inner essence that makes it what it is.

We think in terms of enduring essences—rather than shifting responses to external influences—because we find such essences easier to process mentally, as well as more satisfying emotionally.

We think in terms of enduring essences—rather than shifting responses to external influences—because we find such essences easier to process mentally, as well as more satisfying emotionally.

Medications and technologies that might, someday, actually enhance intelligence remain in the early stages of laboratory testing. The best way—and, at least for now, the only way—for us to get smarter is to get better at thinking outside the brain.

Medications and technologies that might, someday, actually enhance intelligence remain in the early stages of laboratory testing. The best way—and, at least for now, the only way—for us to get smarter is to get better at thinking outside the brain.

In chapter 1, we’ll learn how to tune in to our interoception—the sensations that arise from within the body—and how to use these signals to make sounder decisions.

In chapter 1, we’ll learn how to tune in to our interoception—the sensations that arise from within the body—and how to use these signals to make sounder decisions.

In chapter 6, we will explore how moving our thoughts out of our heads and into “the space of ideas” can lead us to new insights and discoveries.

In chapter 6, we will explore how moving our thoughts out of our heads and into “the space of ideas” can lead us to new insights and discoveries.

Finally, in chapter 9, we’ll examine how groups thinking together can become more than the sum of their members.

Finally, in chapter 9, we’ll examine how groups thinking together can become more than the sum of their members.

experts are those who have learned how best to marshal and apply extra-neural resources to the task before them.

experts are those who have learned how best to marshal and apply extra-neural resources to the task before them.

In most scenarios, researchers have found, experts are less likely to “use their heads” and more inclined to extend their minds—a habit that the rest of us can learn to emulate on our way to achieving mastery.

In most scenarios, researchers have found, experts are less likely to “use their heads” and more inclined to extend their minds—a habit that the rest of us can learn to emulate on our way to achieving mastery.

What does this mean? Many phrases used are not defined clearly.

In most scenarios, researchers have found, experts are less likely to “use their heads” and more inclined to extend their minds—a habit that the rest of us can learn to emulate on our way to achieving mastery.

What does this mean? Many phrases used are not defined clearly.

That is: some people are able to think more intelligently because they are better able to extend their minds.

That is: some people are able to think more intelligently because they are better able to extend their minds.

Again. Redundant. No explanation of what this means really.

That is: some people are able to think more intelligently because they are better able to extend their minds.

Again. Redundant. No explanation of what this means really.

Interoception is, simply stated, an awareness of the inner state of the body.

Interoception is, simply stated, an awareness of the inner state of the body.

Researchers have found a surprisingly wide range in terms of how people score. Some individuals are interoceptive champions, able to determine accurately and consistently when their heartbeats happen. Others are interoceptive duds: they can’t feel the rhythm.

Researchers have found a surprisingly wide range in terms of how people score. Some individuals are interoceptive champions, able to determine accurately and consistently when their heartbeats happen. Others are interoceptive duds: they can’t feel the rhythm.

All of us begin life with our interoceptive capacities already operating; interoceptive awareness continues to develop across childhood and adolescence. Differences in sensitivity to internal signals may be influenced by genetic factors, as well as by the environments in which we grow up, including the communications we receive from caregivers about how we should respond to our bodily prompts.

All of us begin life with our interoceptive capacities already operating; interoceptive awareness continues to develop across childhood and adolescence. Differences in sensitivity to internal signals may be influenced by genetic factors, as well as by the environments in which we grow up, including the communications we receive from caregivers about how we should respond to our bodily prompts.

Once we establish contact with this informative internal source, we can make wise use of what it has to tell us: to make sounder decisions, for example; to respond more resiliently to challenges and setbacks; to savor more fully the intensity of our emotions while also managing them more skillfully; and to connect to others with more sensitivity and insight. The heart, and not the head, leads the way.

Once we establish contact with this informative internal source, we can make wise use of what it has to tell us: to make sounder decisions, for example; to respond more resiliently to challenges and setbacks; to savor more fully the intensity of our emotions while also managing them more skillfully; and to connect to others with more sensitivity and insight. The heart, and not the head, leads the way.