The Extended Mind: The Power of Thinking Outside the Brain

by Annie Murphy Paul

The movements of the target operated according to a pattern too complex for the conscious mind to accommodate—but the capacious realm that lies below consciousness was more than roomy enough to contain it.

The movements of the target operated according to a pattern too complex for the conscious mind to accommodate—but the capacious realm that lies below consciousness was more than roomy enough to contain it.

By card 10 (about forty-five seconds into the game), measures of skin conductance showed that their bodies were wise to the way the game was rigged. But even ten turns later—on card 20—“all indicated that they did not have a clue about what was going on,” the researchers noted. It took until card 50 was turned, and several minutes had elapsed, for all the participants to express a conscious hunch that decks A and B were riskier.

By card 10 (about forty-five seconds into the game), measures of skin conductance showed that their bodies were wise to the way the game was rigged. But even ten turns later—on card 20—“all indicated that they did not have a clue about what was going on,” the researchers noted. It took until card 50 was turned, and several minutes had elapsed, for all the participants to express a conscious hunch that decks A and B were riskier.

HERE, THEN, is a reason to hone our interoceptive sense: people who are more aware of their bodily sensations are better able to make use of their non-conscious knowledge.

HERE, THEN, is a reason to hone our interoceptive sense: people who are more aware of their bodily sensations are better able to make use of their non-conscious knowledge.

“People find the body scan beneficial because it reconnects their conscious mind to the feeling states of their body,”

“People find the body scan beneficial because it reconnects their conscious mind to the feeling states of their body,”

Brain-scanning studies offer further evidence of the calming effect of affect labeling: simply naming what is felt reduces activity in the amygdala, the brain structure involved in processing fear and other strong emotions.

Brain-scanning studies offer further evidence of the calming effect of affect labeling: simply naming what is felt reduces activity in the amygdala, the brain structure involved in processing fear and other strong emotions.

Among social scientists, a character named Homo economicus is often invoked; the term describes an idealized agent who always makes the perfectly logical and rational choice. This figure has proved hard to find in the real world—and yet, the Virginia Tech researchers write, “in this study, we identified a population of human beings who play the ultimatum game more like Homo economicus.” In a tone of some surprise, they continue, “Experienced meditators were willing to accept even the most asymmetrical offers on more than half of the trials, whereas control members of Homo sapiens did so in just over one-quarter of the trials.”

Among social scientists, a character named Homo economicus is often invoked; the term describes an idealized agent who always makes the perfectly logical and rational choice. This figure has proved hard to find in the real world—and yet, the Virginia Tech researchers write, “in this study, we identified a population of human beings who play the ultimatum game more like Homo economicus.” In a tone of some surprise, they continue, “Experienced meditators were willing to accept even the most asymmetrical offers on more than half of the trials, whereas control members of Homo sapiens did so in just over one-quarter of the trials.”

“De-biasing approaches which rely primarily on shifting cognition from System 1 to System 2 are unlikely to succeed,” he maintains. “The human capacity for self-monitoring and effortful System 2 cognition is limited and is rapidly depleted. Attempts to reduce biases by learning about biases and engaging in self-monitoring rapidly come up against human cognitive limits.”

“De-biasing approaches which rely primarily on shifting cognition from System 1 to System 2 are unlikely to succeed,” he maintains. “The human capacity for self-monitoring and effortful System 2 cognition is limited and is rapidly depleted. Attempts to reduce biases by learning about biases and engaging in self-monitoring rapidly come up against human cognitive limits.”

We can clarify and codify the body’s messages by keeping an “interoceptive journal”—a record of the choices we make, and how we felt when we made them. Each journal entry has three parts. First, a brief account of the decision we’re facing. Second, a description—as detailed and precise as possible—of the internal sensations we experience as we contemplate the various options available. An interoceptive journal asks us to consider the paths that lie before us, one by one, and take note of how we feel as we imagine choosing one path over another. The third section of the journal entry is a notation of the choice on which we ultimately settle, and a description of any further sensations that arise upon our making this final selection.

We can clarify and codify the body’s messages by keeping an “interoceptive journal”—a record of the choices we make, and how we felt when we made them. Each journal entry has three parts. First, a brief account of the decision we’re facing. Second, a description—as detailed and precise as possible—of the internal sensations we experience as we contemplate the various options available. An interoceptive journal asks us to consider the paths that lie before us, one by one, and take note of how we feel as we imagine choosing one path over another. The third section of the journal entry is a notation of the choice on which we ultimately settle, and a description of any further sensations that arise upon our making this final selection.

Perhaps you’ll see in retrospect that you experienced a constriction in your chest when you contemplated a course of action that would, in fact, have led to disappointment—but that you felt something subtly different, a lifting and opening of the ribcage, when you considered an approach that would prove successful.

Perhaps you’ll see in retrospect that you experienced a constriction in your chest when you contemplated a course of action that would, in fact, have led to disappointment—but that you felt something subtly different, a lifting and opening of the ribcage, when you considered an approach that would prove successful.

THE BODY, THEN, can act as a sagacious guide to good decision making—in

THE BODY, THEN, can act as a sagacious guide to good decision making—in

Interoception acts as a continually updated gauge of our present status. Its cues let us know when we can push ourselves and when we have to give ourselves a rest.

Interoception acts as a continually updated gauge of our present status. Its cues let us know when we can push ourselves and when we have to give ourselves a rest.

Paulus found an additional difference between the two groups: on average, the low-resilience individuals exhibited poor interoception, as measured by the heartbeat detection test, while the high-resilience people possessed a keen sense of their internal world.

Paulus found an additional difference between the two groups: on average, the low-resilience individuals exhibited poor interoception, as measured by the heartbeat detection test, while the high-resilience people possessed a keen sense of their internal world.

These champions have a superior ability to sense their bodies’ cues, and are therefore better able to monitor and manage their bodies’ resources as they rise to meet a challenge. They are like efficient, well-calibrated motors that don’t waste even a bit of power, keeping plenty of energy in reserve.

These champions have a superior ability to sense their bodies’ cues, and are therefore better able to monitor and manage their bodies’ resources as they rise to meet a challenge. They are like efficient, well-calibrated motors that don’t waste even a bit of power, keeping plenty of energy in reserve.

The ability to allocate our internal resources effectively in tackling mental challenges is a capacity researchers call “cognitive resilience.”

The ability to allocate our internal resources effectively in tackling mental challenges is a capacity researchers call “cognitive resilience.”

By remaining alert to these preliminary signals, she says, we can avoid being taken by surprise and then overreacting, entering a state of physiological arousal from which it is hard to come down.

By remaining alert to these preliminary signals, she says, we can avoid being taken by surprise and then overreacting, entering a state of physiological arousal from which it is hard to come down.

The point is to keep in close contact with our internal reality at all times—to train ourselves “to pay attention and notice what’s happening while it’s happening,” as Stanley puts it.

The point is to keep in close contact with our internal reality at all times—to train ourselves “to pay attention and notice what’s happening while it’s happening,” as Stanley puts it.

In fact, the causal arrow points in the opposite direction. The body produces sensations, the body initiates actions—and only then does the mind assemble these pieces of evidence into the entity we call an emotion.

In fact, the causal arrow points in the opposite direction. The body produces sensations, the body initiates actions—and only then does the mind assemble these pieces of evidence into the entity we call an emotion.

we feel fear because our heart is racing, because our palms are sweating, because our legs are propelling us forward.

we feel fear because our heart is racing, because our palms are sweating, because our legs are propelling us forward.

equipped with interoceptive awareness, we can get in on the ground floor of emotion construction; we can participate in creating the type of emotion we experience.

equipped with interoceptive awareness, we can get in on the ground floor of emotion construction; we can participate in creating the type of emotion we experience.

In a similar fashion, we can choose to reappraise debilitating “stress” as productive “coping.”

In a similar fashion, we can choose to reappraise debilitating “stress” as productive “coping.”

if what we’re feeling is a heavy sense of apathy or lassitude, exclaiming “I’m so excited!” isn’t going to work.

if what we’re feeling is a heavy sense of apathy or lassitude, exclaiming “I’m so excited!” isn’t going to work.

When interacting with other people, we subtly and unconsciously mimic their facial expressions, gestures, posture, and vocal pitch. Then, via the interoception of our own bodies’ signals, we perceive what the other person is feeling because we feel it in ourselves.

The interoceptive champions among us may be clinical psychologists, who are professionally trained to read their own bodies’ signals for clues to what their patients are feeling—even when their clients are not yet able to verbalize their emotions.

when we feel socially rejected or excluded, for example—we tend to shift our focus away from our own internal sensations and toward external events, perhaps in an urgent effort to repair the breach.

Worn on the wrist like a watch or a Fitbit, doppel generates the persuasive sensation of a slow, relaxed heartbeat—or, on a different setting, of a fast, excited one.

“I feel, therefore I am.” Craig maintains that interoceptive awareness is the basis of the “material me,” the source of our most fundamental knowledge of ourselves.

When we’re engaged in physical activity, our visual sense is sharpened, especially with regard to stimuli appearing in the periphery of our gaze.

people who have fitter bodies generally have keener minds. In recent years, however, researchers have begun to explore an exciting additional possibility: that single bouts of physical activity can enhance our cognition in the short term.

Raichlen, who has conducted extensive studies of some of the world’s remaining hunter-gatherer tribes, points out that this way of life is both physically and cognitively demanding. Foraging requires vigorous, sustained physical activity; it also makes demands on attention, memory, spatial navigation, motor control, and executive functions like planning and decision making. Hunting, too, poses both a mental and a physical challenge: the hunter has to locate the animal and track its unpredictable movements even while mustering the energy to outrun it. Such are the conditions under which the unique human brain evolved. The dual demands of physical challenge and cognitive complexity shaped our special status as Homo sapiens; to this day, bodily activity and mental acuity are still intimately intertwined.