Margot Note's Blog, page 28

Archivists: Neutral or Active?

Archivists often talk about the function of archives in our society. But what do we mean, exactly? Has the meaning changed over time?

Some of this way of thinking comes from the archivist Hilary Jenkinson. In his writing for the field, he discussed public faith, which he defined as the relationship between archives and the society they serve and the idea of government conducting public affairs, documented in the records.

Archives function as repositories of history and memory, and as such they serve several functions, such as the preservation of collective national memory, the constitution of national identity, and the creation of social space.

Neutral Stewards of History

The traditional assumption is that archivists are neutral stewards of history. A stance of neutrality implies that archivists:

Objectively develop policies considering institutional missions.

Worry about the authenticity of records but not the truth of records.

Make selection decisions based on the records and the context of their creation.

Use standards for description that support access to materials.

Create use policies that support equal access within institutional restrictions and the law.

The classic archival article, Terry Cook’s “What is Past is Prologue,” runs through a century of archival history and theory, connecting archival theory from all over the western world. His emphasis is that trends have moved from a product-focused activity to a process-oriented activity. I argue that the emphasis on process makes archivists active catalysts of history.

Archivists as Agents

One crucial point is the notion that archival theory is ever-changing because of the need to adapt to changes in recordkeeping and how organizations work. Cook outlines five themes.

The first is in changes in the reasons why archives exist. Cook refers to a shift from a juridico-administrative justification for archives to a socio-cultural argument for archives, grounded in broader public policy and use based on history and expectations.

He also notes changes in the archival approach to preserving authenticity. Archivists no longer depend on the chain of custody of documents—which certainly doesn’t work with electronic records—which entail problems regarding how they are created as evidence. Preservation shifts from the medium to the information and evidence-bearing context.

He points out the changes in the archival approach to appraisal. Cook discusses diplomatics, which focuses on document characteristics and how archivists have moved more towards documenting functions of records creation.

There are also changes in the emphasis on archival impartiality. Archivists are no longer passive keepers of documents. Instead archivists are active shapers. The role of archivists as agent, and the influence of that role, is more clearly recognized.

Lastly, Cook notes changes from archival theory as a set of immutable rules to a more evolving body of ideas. He refers to archival theory as a vibrant collage of overlapping layers, allowing for the existence of contradictory ideas.

Engaged and Active

Innovative ideas regarding appraisal, arrangement, and description have come to fruition during the many years since Cook’s article appeared. For example, archivists tend to appraise not so much based on bodies of material, but on the functions and roles of the record creators and the significance of those functions and roles. Archival descriptive systems attempt to mesh context and content. Most importantly, archival access is now understood as more than just finding aids, but also reference, outreach, education, and vigorously connecting with communities.

All these activities are an attempt to describe (in rich context) archival records in diverse media from a connected point-of-view. More importantly, the archival profession has realized that it must better document the diverse communities they serve. Doing so requires archivists to be more inclusive in their practices, engage others with cultural competency, and understand the broad information needs of contemporary archives users. Rather than seeing archival work as merely the neutral construction of product, archivists are actively processing history and preserving our collective memory.

The blog was originally published on Lucidea's blog.

If you like archives, memory, and legacy as much as I do, you might consider signing up for my email list. Every few weeks I send out a newsletter with new articles and exclusive content for readers. It’s basically my way of keeping in touch with you and letting you know what’s going on. Your information is protected and I never spam.

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Archives and Records Management: A Symbiotic Pairing

Records management aims to deliver the right information at the right time to the right people at the lowest cost. A robust records management program saves time, costs, and space and mitigates risk. It also strengthens archival programs.

A record is evidence of an activity or transaction, and a records retention program tracks the storage, tracking, and destruction of records. Records management identifies the documents to keep and outlines guidelines for how long different record types should be stored and how they should be destroyed.

The relationship between the archives and records management professions is symbiotic in many ways. Both are called upon to identify which records they will manage, and they also need to be careful about maintaining the physical and intellectual integrity of the documents in their care. Archivists and records managers need to describe and arrange records to provide access as well as contextual information. They both observe necessary legislation regarding disposal, privacy, intellectual property, and other issues. Lastly, they maintain the physical–including digital–condition of records.

Our Different Points-of-View

However, the professions also have variances. They have diverse cultural, societal, and historical dimensions. Archives may be seen as either a warehouse of dusty materials or as interested only in serving outside historical research. Archives can be viewed as lacking insight into the ongoing processes of the organization so that the records are only a static product. The professions also require different education and training. Records management training is more vocational, while archival training is more academic. The certification process differs as well; qualifying individuals can become certified through a test proctored by the Academy of Certified Archivists, while future records managers take a series of six exams administered by the Institute of Certified Records Managers. (I serve on the exam committee, and I can attest to the amount of consideration that goes into creating these exams).

Archivists and records managers see a difference in the definition of evidence. Records managers see evidence as something that can be used in court. Archivists, on the other hand, see evidence as something that provides information and insight into the underlying activities for which the records were created.

Records management is an integral part of modern business processes and is associated with workflows. Archivists would be well-served by having a deeper understanding of records management, especially in institutional archives. For example, I started my career as an archivist but also realized that I had to have more knowledge about records management. I began learning about records management on my way to become a Certified Records Manager. As a consultant on archival and records management projects, knowing the flow of information from its creation to its disposition has made be a more informed, sought-after professional.

Our Unifying Objectives

Whether we see records from the perspective of archivists or records managers, we do share several aims. Both professions want to ensure the creation of the right documents, containing accurate information, in the correct format. We also organize the records and analyze their content and significance to facilitate their availability. We strive to make them available promptly to those who have a right and requirement to see them. We also systematically dispose of records that are no longer required and then protect and preserve information to be saved for as long as it may be needed (if necessary, forever).

In our current times, archivists and records managers need to be involved at the beginning of records creation and to support the ongoing communication that preserves the information in the context in which it was created and used.

The blog was originally published on Lucidea's blog.

If you like archives, memory, and legacy as much as I do, you might consider signing up for my email list. Every few weeks I send out a newsletter with new articles and exclusive content for readers. It’s basically my way of keeping in touch with you and letting you know what’s going on. Your information is protected and I never spam.

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A Records Management Primer for Archivists

Records management is the systematic control of records throughout their life cycle to ensure efficiency and economy in their creation, use, handling, maintenance, and destruction. The records management life cycle is the distinct phases of a record’s existence, from creation to disposition. Archives and records management programs are often linked in an organization.

Records are created in diverse formats to accomplish activities, which establishes the form and content of the files. They are used by the records creators for the purposes for which they were created in the conduct of business. Files tend to grow as records are received as well as created. They then are stored and maintained. Records are retained because they are still being used regularly. The filing systems must facilitate access, and integrity must be maintained. These files are still active even though they may not be used or added to as frequently.

At a certain point, the frequency of use declines, and the records decline in value for the records creators. Several things can happen: the records can be destroyed immediately, they can be transferred to a storage facility such as a records center for a period, or they can be transferred to the archives. Materials in the records center may be transferred to the archives later or destroyed after a certain number of years. The records retention schedule spells out these determinations.

Records that have long term value for either the records creators or other researchers can be transferred to the archives. If the archives is external to the organization, ownership of the records transfers to the archives at that point. In a corporate archives that is less frequent, but in government archives, the ownership often shifts from the department or agency to the archival unit.

Records Management Objectives

The aims of a records management program are multifold. It furnishes accurate, timely, and complete information for efficient decision making in the management and operation of the organization. It processes recorded information as efficiently as possible, provides information and records at the lowest possible cost, and renders maximum service to the user of the records. Lastly, it disposes of records that are no longer needed.

Elements of a Records Management Program

A records inventory is the first stage, not dissimilar to collection analysis or even acquisitions fieldwork in a manuscript repository, and requires a survey of existing files. Surveyors identify the kinds of records that exist, filing systems, current and anticipated use, quantity, and date spans.

Records management relies on records retention schedules. Once the series is identified, the records manager, in consultation with others, must determine the life cycle for each series, spelling out what the records are, how long they should remain in the office, and what happens to the files after that active period has passed. If a series is destined for the archives, that is specified. A significant problem with the transition to electronic recordkeeping systems is that a series is no longer necessarily discrete, identifiable, and capable of being managed on an individual basis. Electronic recordkeeping systems tend to combine many series in ways that are intertwined. Attempts to schedule systems become more complicated.

Both archives and records management consider vital records protection and disaster recovery planning. Organizations need to ensure their ability to continue to do business in times of crisis.

Records management is also concerned with active file management. Records management programs must oversee the records that are referred to regularly in terms of filing systems and records creation and maintenance.

As the life cycle indicates, records become inactive at a certain point when they are used by the creating offices infrequently. However, organizations retain them, either because employees refer to them or because of other legal or fiscal reasons. Often such records are sent to the records center if they are in paper form or moved to other electronic storage systems if they are digital. These records are still the responsibility of the records manager.

Lastly, records managers think about archives management, which refers to permanent records that constitute the institutional memory of the organization. Objectives of an archives management program include identifying appraisal standards, gathering data to determine uniqueness, applying appraisal standards, and determining efficient and economical long-term protection of specified records.

Efficiency and Saving Money

If the organization does not have an archival program, what falls into the category of permanent records may also be in the hands of the records manager. While records management programs do not generate income, the efficiency aspects mean that they can save an organization money. As noted, archives and records management programs are often linked in an organization; the cost-saving aspects of the records management side support the expenses of the archives. Again, this reinforces the need to integrate archives into the life cycle.

The blog was originally published on Lucidea's blog.

If you like archives, memory, and legacy as much as I do, you might consider signing up for my email list. Every few weeks I send out a newsletter with new articles and exclusive content for readers. It’s basically my way of keeping in touch with you and letting you know what’s going on. Your information is protected and I never spam.

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How to Pass the PMP Exam on Your First Try

Learn the techniques I used to pass the Project Management Professional (PMP) exam. As a bonus, you’ll discover how to save money for your exam prep and receive a free study guide.

Some Background and a Truth

I’ve studied project management for years. I wrote Project Management for Information Professionals and Demystifying Archival Projects: Five Essentials for Success. I also teach a graduate-level project management course for librarians, archivists, and other information professionals. I’ve read hundreds of books on project management.

That knowledge alone is not enough to pass the PMP exam. The exam, instead, tests how much you know about how the Project Management Institute (PMI) and the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) define project management. Put aside your experience and knowledge and keep this in mind as you study.

The PMP Exam Boot camp

To qualify for the test, you need education hours. I took a 4-day PMP certification training course hosted by the Project Management Academy. I was impressed by the training, the study materials, and the phenomenal instructor.

As part of the boot camp, I received several study books, along with the latest PMBOK. I also accessed a wealth of online resources from the Project Management Academy, including test questions and weekly review meetings. They provided helpful tools to track the project management hours that you must submit to take the test.

I attended the boot camp in March 2019, submitted my application to take the test in May 2019, and took the exam in October 2019. Completing these steps in a tighter timeline would’ve been better, but I had to work around a busy consulting schedule.

Study for Free

The exam is challenging, but it’s not as hard as people selling expensive exam prep services make it out to be. You can pass the test with free resources available online and through your library. There is no need to invest in anything beyond the mandatory education component. You must, however, become obsessed with studying for the PMP exam to cover everything that you’ll need to know to pass.

Strategies for Success

Every day, no matter what, I devoted at least 30 minutes to studying. On many days, I studied more. Like any type of learning and memorizing, you develop knowledge over time; you cannot cram for this exam.

I read the PMBOK. Some sources advise to read it twice, which is unnecessary. Reading it helped me understand everything that could potentially be on the test.

I watched all the Project Management Academy recordings online, usually on the elliptical machine at the gym.

I downloaded resources related to project management on my Google Play, YouTube, and podcast apps to listen to during pockets of time. I remember listening to a YouTube video on the critical path on my walk back and forth to CrossFit and thinking, “I’m a weirdo!” But that constant influx of information soaks in everything you need to know.

I also downloaded free PMP Exam apps. I studied between seeing bands at Gonerfest in Memphis, a fun music festival. It was 1 am, and I had been drinking whiskey straight, but I was still studying!

Answer as Many Sample Questions as Possible

What most contributed to my success was answering sample questions—a lot of them. At first, I was disheartened by how much I got wrong. I slowly saw my correct answers increase.

I used PMP: Project Management Professional Practice Tests by Kim Heldman and Vanina Mangano for my practice questions. Why? Because it was available from the New York Public Library. The answer key explained why the answers were correct, which was helpful.

I also answered sample questions available through the Project Management Academy. I searched Google for additional questions.

I answered over 1,100 questions to prepare. When I got a question wrong, I would take notes on the correct answer in a self-created study guide.

Many complete a practice exam before test day. I did one during the PMP bootcamp class, but not on my own. Life’s too short! I found that when I took the exam, I was so used to answering questions that I was not overwhelmed.

Exam Day

On the day of the exam, I wore comfortable clothes and arrived early at the test site. I caffeinated myself and used my time before the exam to review my study guide.  

I first went through the exam answering every question unless it required extra time for a math problem. Anything I was unsure of, I marked for review. After completing the first pass, I reviewed the questions that I marked. Then I went through the questions marked for review a third time. I spent the rest of my time reviewing from beginning to end until I ran down the clock.

Spend all the time you’re given to take the exam. Reviewing questions multiple times highlights your errors.

I sat for the whole time without a break. This may be difficult for some, but I was in the zone—a realm of calmness and timelessness—where I logically picked the answers.

The result? I passed! I got Above Target on most of the domains.

My Gifts to You

The biggest help I received was from Project Management Academy. When you register for a live or virtual course, use the coupon code REF100 to get a $100 instant discount. Enter my email (margotnote@gmail.com) into the Referral Email Address field on the last step during the checkout process. I’ll receive a referral bonus too. In other words, you’ll help us both for free.

If you’d like the PMP Exam Study guide I created, which contains 11 pages of notes, email me at margotnote@gmail.com for a copy.

The PMP Exam is challenging but possible, and you can pass it if you’re smart about your study strategy. Share your tips in the comment section below.

Get access to my free project management resource library, delivered to your inbox:

Archival Collection Policies: Writing the Best One for Your Needs

Archival repositories tend to fall into three categories. No matter what type of archives you have, a collection policy allows you to make sound acquisition decisions.

Institutional archives acquire and maintain the records of the parent organization or inter-related organizations. Collecting archives gather materials about a defined area, be it geographic, such as a state historical society, or topical, such as the Schlesinger Library at Harvard, which collects material on women’s history. Finally, combination archives collect both institutional records and outside materials, such as a university archives—which collects official institutional records and faculty papers and materials, as well as documents a subject specialty.

The Importance of a Collection Policy

In many respects, a collection policy defines the nature of the archives. The policy is an opportunity to examine:

the purpose of the institution, its mission, and the users it serves.

the types of programs sponsored, such as research, publications, exhibits, and outreach.

the priorities in terms of what the resource allocators want. For example, a historical society might switch its focus from a scholarly one to one emphasizing outreach or public history.

The policy also provides continuity over time for staff, administration, and donors. Staff members change, and distinct parts of an institution may need to coordinate with each other. The policy allows for a sustained effort and a streamlined mission.

Since it’s not etched in stone, a policy can evolve to reflect institutional changes, societal transformations, and research trends. For instance, if an institution shifts focus towards a more public history approach with more exhibits, the types of collections desired might shift in response.

Characteristics of Archival Collection Policies

Collecting policies should be reflective of the objectives and plans of the organization that they represent. If the acquisition policies of the archives don’t reflect the goals of the larger institution, problems emerge. Policies should also be consistent with providing balance over time and a way for the archives to maintain control over their growth. They should be flexible as research topics shift, and diverse needs arise.

Policies differ from rules and procedures. Policies are more thematic and allow for interpretation, while procedures are more rigid. Most importantly, collection policies should be written. Policies are unsound or indefensible if they are only in the heads of directors or archivists. An agreed-upon policy allows you to turn down requests—sometimes even from influential donors—that don’t benefit the archival repository.

Collecting with Context

Archives, however, don’t work within a vacuum, so archivists must keep other factors in mind when they develop collection policies. For example, what are the similar repositories on the subject? How much room is there for another archival institution covering that topic? Review the other repositories in the geographic area. Multiple repositories may concentrate on a specific topic, but geographic proximity implies greater competition.

Think about your cooperative arrangements. What agreements does your institution currently have with other repositories that would affect your acquisition efforts? Remember that larger institutions may have agreements that are outside the archives, such as public programs.

Determine your current strengths and weaknesses. It’s easier to build on métiers and to fill identifiable gaps. Sincere consideration should be taken before embarking on a whole new research area.

What’s your secondary source support? Primary source collections benefit from having secondary sources at hand, which is essential for both researchers who can use the sources in conjunction with the archives, and staff, who need access to secondary sources to process the collections and do reference work. In addition, substantial holdings serve as a magnet, attracting more materials.

Who are your potential audiences? Remember that archives often have a primary audience and secondary audiences. Collecting policies need to consider both.

Lastly, consider your fiscal and administrative support. Building and maintaining archival collections can be resource intensive. Cultivating donors can be expensive, as well as costs related to supplies, storage, and conservation treatments. Most importantly, archival labor requires advanced skills developed over years of education and experience, and archivists should be paid their worth.

The blog was originally published on Lucidea's blog.

If you like archives, memory, and legacy as much as I do, you might consider signing up for my email list. Every few weeks I send out a newsletter with new articles and exclusive content for readers. It’s basically my way of keeping in touch with you and letting you know what’s going on. Your information is protected and I never spam.

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Establishing a Records Management Action Plan

A records management program cannot succeed without the involvement of the organization’s decision-makers. Key stakeholders frame the record-management policy. There are two primary goals in involving decision-makers. First, since they will have a broad view of the organization, they encourage the message that no personal ownership of information exists. Second, their involvement establishes the necessary authority to conduct a record management program. Determine who on staff will be the stakeholders and the executive sponsor of this project.

Establish a project team with departmental representatives. The team sets up a network of records coordinators with a lead person and coordinators for each department. Decide if everything will be done in-house or if outside help, such as a consultant, will be needed.

Select one department to initiate the records management project. Based on the experience obtained in this department, you can estimate the resources needed to do other departments.

Perform an Inventory

Perform a cursory inventory of where your physical records are kept. Do you have records stored in off-site storage? Do you have records stored in other areas besides the office? Are there abandoned files left by former employees? Include empty offices, closets, and other common areas. Document where materials are located, how much there is, and the format. Determine what you already have by record type and years or range of years to provide a baseline for records management.

An inventory helps identify which materials are records or nonrecords, such as reference materials, personal papers, and extra copies of materials.

The inventory helps identify which records would need to be immediately available in the event of an emergency, which are vital records.

Classify Records

Every record of an organization is active or inactive. Within these classifications, the record belongs in a series, such as progress reports or presentation materials. The series belongs to a particular category—historical, or administrative, for example—that determines whether the records are to be retained or thrown away.

Do the same with your digital records. What records are being kept, how are they identified, and where are they located on the servers?

Determine if you have current or anticipated lawsuits. What has been the organization’s history of litigation? This information informs if materials need to be retained for legal holds. If records are on legal hold, they cannot be destroyed until the legal hold is lifted.

Hire a records manager (temp, contract, or consulting) or task an employee with this project. This person will complete the inventory of records and write a records management policy that determines when documents should be retained and when they should be destroyed according to a schedule based on federal, state, and local laws.

Determine if records will be kept in a centralized area or at individual workstations and the document types that are included in the record files. Also, determine how draft documents, working papers, and concurrence copies will be handled and who will be responsible for maintaining the record copy.

Create a Policy

The records management policy should be approved by the board before implementing it. The policy may require a review by a lawyer, depending on the type of records or current or anticipated litigation.

The consultant (or a member of staff) will train employees on the records retention policy with live and recorded sessions. The training will explain how to translate the policy into real-world action.

Each department would implement the policy according to its specific documents. Shredding and scanning services should be obtained to assist departments in implementing the policy. What vendors do you already employ? Each department manager would have a specific date to attest that they have implemented the policy.

The policy will be reviewed yearly to make sure that the schedule still aligns with local, state, and federal laws.

Explore Off-Site Options

Determine if you will need an off-site storage vendor if you do not already have one. The vendor should be used for records that must be kept permanently or for long retention periods that you do not have room on-site to store. Keep in mind that the monthly rates for off-storage storage are low, but destroying, removing, or moving off-site storage collections is expensive. The latter fees can easily result in thousands of dollars.

Learn More

Interested in bringing records management expertise to your organization? I may be the solution you’re seeking. Get in touch to start a conversation about how I can help you achieve your records management goals.

If you like archives, memory, and legacy as much as I do, you might consider signing up for my email list. Every few weeks I send out a newsletter with new articles and exclusive content for readers. It’s basically my way of keeping in touch with you and letting you know what’s going on. Your information is protected and I never spam.

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Archival Thesaurus Prototype for Lone Arrangers

On their website, the Society of American Archivists describes the work of archivists in the following manner:

The primary task of the archivist is to establish and maintain control, both physical and intellectual, over records of enduring value. Archivists select records, a process that requires an understanding of the historical context in which the records were created, the uses for which they were intended, and their relationships to other sources. The archivist then arranges and describes the records, in accordance with accepted standards and practices; ensures the long-term preservation of collections; assists researchers; and plans and directs exhibitions, publications, and other outreach programs to broaden the use of collections and to enlist support for archival programs.[1]

The responsibilities of archivists are immense in large institutions, let alone smaller organizations where resources are limited and employees are few. What is a solo archivist—also known as a lone arranger—to do? One place to start is becoming familiar with the fundamental principles and terminology of archives and records management.

As the profession has grown, core archival concepts have become more defined.

At the same time, jargon and buzzwords have increased, often without true understanding of what they mean. The advent of electronic records has had a significant impact in archival language, introducing XML, EADs, and a host of other technical acronyms to the profession. Ironically, in this digital environment, “archives” has taken the additional meaning of storage of older documents online. Despite these technical advances, the fundamental concepts of archives and records administration remain the same, as well as a large portion of its terminology.

The definitions and relationships in this thesaurus have been cultivated from my experience as an archivist, as well as reading the articles and publications of professional associations. The Archival Fundamentals Series, published by the Society of American Archivists, has been helpful in introducing core principles in an intelligent, enlightening way.

Creating the thesaurus challenged me to define terms, facets, and relationships between words in a succinct, definitive way. The process helped me to understand and engage more deeply in the elemental aspects of archives management, thinking about words more carefully and the profession more theoretically.

About the Thesaurus

This thesaurus presents a controlled vocabulary of archival terminology for the lone arranger, or solo archivist, who is responsible for all aspects of work in a small archives. The terms can be used for indexing and retrieving documents about archives and records management. This prototype thesaurus of 73 terms shows the promise of this project, but does not represent a complete thesaurus, which is outside the scope of this assignment.

The thesaurus defines common terms of archival management in standardized language, shows the hierarchical and alphabetic displays of these terms, and presents hierarchical and associative relationships in the ERIC and INSPEC print models. 

The hierarchical display represents broad concept terms with narrower terms indented and displayed below. The hierarchical display is a list of terms arranged by their semantic relationships to a broader facet. Terms listed under a heading are subordinate to that term. For example, examine this display:

Access Tools

                        Finding Aids

“Finding Aids” are listed below “Access Tools” because they are a specific type of access tool. 

The alphabetical display lists all terms with scope notes defining their meaning. Their semantic relationships to other terms are listed beneath the scope notes.

The indexed record samples section includes five database records indexed using terms from this thesaurus, which demonstrates the scope and domain of the thesaurus.

Semantic Relationships 

Scope Note (SN)

Represents the definition of the term and, in some circumstances, clarifies usage parameters between similar terms.

Broader Term (BN)

Represents a related term that is more general in scope. In the hierarchical display, broader terms are listed first with narrower terms indented below.  

Narrower Term (NT)

Represents a related term that is narrower in scope. In the hierarchical display, narrower terms are listed under the broader terms and indented.

Related Term (RT)

Represents an associative, non-hierarchical relationship. Related terms are reciprocal.

Used For (UF)

Represents a non-preferred synonym of the preferred term. Used for terms have no scope notes. 

Use (USE)

Represents the preferred term. USE is often used for variant spellings, obsolete terms, and slang. USE informs users that a term is not the preferred term and directs them to the preferred term. For example, users looking for the term “Data Bases” will find “USE Databases” below the listing in the alphabetical display, which points to the preferred term.

Hierarchical Display

Access Tools

Catalogs

Databases

            Finding Aids

                        Calendars

                        Guides

                        Inventories

                        Registers

                        Shelf Lists

            Indexes

Archival Activities

            Accession

            Acquisition

            Classification

            Collection Development

            Conservation

            Deaccession

Outreach        

            Processing

                                    Appraisal

                                    Arrangement

                        Description

                        Preservation

Reference       

            Restoration

            Selection

Archival Units

            Cubic Feet

            Linear Feet

Archives

            Collections

                        Files

                                           Records

                                                   Documents

                                       Objects

Arrangement Principles

            Original Order

            Provenance

Outreach Services

Educational Programs

            Exhibitions

            Publications

            Workshops

Primary Sources

            Ephemera

                        Advertisements

                        Brochures

                        Posters

            Manuscripts

                        Diaries

                        Journals

                        Ledgers

                        Letters

                        Minutes

            Moving Images

                        Motion Pictures

                        Videos

            Photographs

                        Cyanotype

Daguerreotypes

                        Digital Photographs

                        Lantern Slides

                        Movie Stills

                        Negatives

                        Silver Gelatin Photographs

                        Slides

                        Stereographs

                        Tintypes

                        Transparencies

Reference Services

            Reader Services

            Reading Room Services

Alphabetical Display

Access Tools

SN       Means of locating relevant materials.

NT       Catalogs

Databases

           Finding Aids

           Indexes

Accession

SN       The act of taking legal and physical custody of materials and documenting information about them, including their receipt.

BT       Archival Activities

RT       Acquisition     

           Deaccession

Acquisition

SN       The act of taking legal and physical custody of a materials.

BT       Archival Activities

RT       Accession          

           Appraisal

           Collection Development        

           Selection

Ads

USE Advertisements

Advertisements

SN       Print, broadcast, or electronic notices designed to attract public attention.

UF       Ads

BT       Ephemera

RT       Brochures

           Posters

Appraisal

SN       The act of identifying materials that have sufficient value to be added to an archives.

RT       Acquisition

           Collection Development

           Selection

BT       Processing

Archival Activities

SN      Actions performed by an archivist to support physical and intellectual control of materials of enduring value.

NT      Accession

          Acquisition

          Classification

          Collection Development

          Conservation

          Deaccession

Outreach

          Processing

          Reference

          Restoration

          Selection

Archival Units

SN      Types of measurements used to determine quantities, capacities, or dimensions of archival materials.

NT      Cubic Feet

          Linear Feet

Archives

SN      Non-current materials produced by an individual or organization kept for their enduring value.

UF      Archive

NT      Collections

Archive

USE Archives

Arrangement

SN      The act of organizing materials in a meaningful way.

BT       Processing

RT       Arrangement Principles

Arrangement Principles

SN      Fundamental ideas about how archival materials should be organized to convey meaning.

NT      Original Order

          Provenance

RT      Arrangement

Booklets

USE Brochures

Brochures

SN     Small booklets or pamphlets, often containing promotional materials.

UF     Booklets

         Pamphlets

BT     Ephemera

RT     Advertisements

         Posters

Calendars

SN     Documents organized chronologically, indicating the day of week, date, and month.

BT      Finding Aids

RT      Guides

          Inventories

          Registers

          Shelf Lists

Catalogs

SN     Descriptions of materials produced in conjunction with exhibitions that lists the materials exhibited with subject-specific text.

UF      Catalogues

BT      Access Tools

RT      Exhibitions

Catalogues

USE Catalogs

Cinefilms

USE Motion Pictures

Classification

SN     The act of organizing materials into categories according to a scheme different from the one established by the creator.     

BT      Archival Activities

Collection Development

SN     The act of establishing policies and procedures used to select materials to add to the archives.

BT     Archival Activities

RT     Acquisition

         Appraisal

         Selection

Collections

SN       Non-current materials produced by an individual or organization kept for their enduring value with a common source or theme.

UF       Holdings

BT       Archives

NT       Files

Conservation

SN       The act of attending to the physical care and maintenance of materials, including cleaning, storage, and repair which counters, but does not always eliminate, existing damage.

BT       Archival Activities

RT       Preservation      

           Restoration

Cubic Feet

SN       Measures used to describe collections and indicate quantities of materials in three dimensions.

BT       Archival Units

RT       Linear Feet

Cyanotype

SN       Images recorded by a camera that uses Prussian blue to produce a positive print.

BT       Photographs

Daguerreotypes

SN       Images recorded by a camera on silver-coated copper plates and developed using mercury fumes.

BT       Photographs

Databases

SN       Comprehensive compilations of related data that is accessed, structured, stored, and updated through software.

UF       Data Bases

BT       Access Tools

RT       Files

           Records

Data Bases

USE Databases

Daybook

USE Journal

Deaccession

SN       The act of permanently removing accessioned materials.

UF       Permanent Withdrawal

BT       Archival Activities

RT       Accession

Description

SN       The act of creating tools to facilitate accessibility.

BT       Processing

RT       Access Tools

Diaries

SN       Accounts of events, usually bound, including observations and opinions of a reflective nature.

BT       Manuscripts

RT       Journals

Digital Photographs

SN       Images recorded by a camera and stored as electronic files. Unlike traditional photographs which are usually formed on a light-sensitive surface and fixed by a photochemical process, digital photographs are created by a photoelectric effect. 

BT       Photographs

Documents

SN      Two-dimensional items. Traditionally, it means text fixed on paper.

BT       Records

RT       Objects

Educational Programs

SN      Planned, coordinated groups of activities to educate the public.

BT       Outreach Services

Ephemera

SN       Miscellaneous materials created for short-term use but historically valuable as primary sources of past events.

BT       Primary Sources

NT       Advertisements

           Brochures

           Posters

Exhibitions

SN       Organized displays of materials demonstrating a theme.

UF       Exhibits

BT       Outreach Services

RT       Catalogs

Exhibits

USE Exhibitions

Files

SN       Non-current materials produced by an individual or organization kept for their enduring value with a common source or theme organized in folders because of their relationships to each other. (In databases, collections of related records).

BT       Collections

NT       Records

RT       Databases

Film Stills

USE Movie Stills

Finding Aids

SN       Descriptions of materials that give the archives physical and intellectual control over them and that assists usage.

BT       Access Tools

NT       Calendars

            Guides

            Inventories

            Registers

            Shelf Lists

Gelatin Silver Photographs

USE     Silver Gelatin Photographs

Guides

SN       Broad descriptions of the archives, typically at the collection level.

BT       Finding Aids

RT       Calendars

            Inventories

            Registers

            Shelf Lists

Holdings

USE Collections

Indexes

SN       Ordered lists that point to relevant information in materials that are organized in a different order.    

UF       Indices

BT       Access Tools

Indices

USE Indexes

Inventories

SN       Lists of terse descriptions of the archives, typically at the collection level.

BT       Finding Aids

RT       Calendars

           Guides

           Registers

          Shelf Lists

Journals

SN       Accounts of events, usually bound, containing terse entries about events.

UF       Daybook                    

BT       Manuscripts

RT       Diaries

Lantern Slides

SN       Images recorded by a camera, which are transparent on glass that are intended to be viewed by projection.

BT       Photographs

RT       Slides

Ledgers

SN       Documents containing notations of debits, credits, and other financial transactions.

BT       Manuscripts

Letters

SN       Written communications, especially sent by courier or post.

BT       Manuscripts

Linear Feet

SN       Measures used to describe collections and indicate the quantity of materials in two dimensions.

BT       Archival Units

RT       Cubic Feet

L’ordre Primitif

USE Original Order

Manuscripts

SN       Unpublished documents, such as the personal papers of individuals or organizations.

BT       Primary Sources

NT       Diaries

           Journals

Ledgers

Letters

Minutes

Minutes

SN      Notes of actions taken and comments made at a meeting.

BT      Manuscripts

Motion Pictures

SN      Sequences of images on film that, when viewed in rapid succession, give the appearance of movement.

UF      Cinefilms

           Movies

           Moving Pictures

           Picture Shows

BT      Moving Images

RT      Movie Stills

Movie Stills

SN       Stationary images recorded by a camera during the production of a motion picture.

UF       Film Stills

           Still Pictures

BT       Photographs

RT       Motion Picture

Movies

USE Motion Pictures               

Moving Images

SN      Generic term for visual works that have the appearance of movement.

BT      Primary Sources

NT      Motion Pictures

          Videos

Moving Pictures

USE Motion Pictures

Negatives

SN       Images recorded by a camera, usually on transparent film or glass, with reversed tones.

BT       Photographs

Objects

SN      Three-dimensional items.

BT       Records

RT       Documents

Original Order

SN       The organization and sequence of materials established by the creator.

UF       L’ordre Primitif

           Registry Principle

            Respect de L’ordre Intérieur

            Respect for Original Order

BT       Arrangement Principles

RT       Provenance

Outreach

SN       The act of identifying and providing services to users in the community.

BT       Archival Activities

RT       Outreach Services

Outreach Services

SN       Activities that promote the archives to the community.

NT       Educational Programs

            Exhibitions

            Publications

            Workshops

RT       Outreach

Pamphlets

USE Brochures

Permanent Withdrawal

USE Deaccession

Photographs

SN       Images recorded by a camera.

BT       Primary Sources

NT       Cyanotype

Daguerreotypes

            Digital Photographs

            Lantern Slides

            Movie Stills

            Negatives

          Silver Gelatin Photographs

            Slides

            Stereographs

            Tintypes

            Transparencies

Picture Shows

USE Motion Pictures

Posters

SN       Large, usually printed and illustrated announcements.

BT       Ephemera

RT       Advertisements

           Brochures

Preservation

SN       The act of protecting materials by minimizing chemical and physical deterioration and damage. 

BT       Processing

RT       Conservation

           Restoration

Primary Sources

SN       Materials that contain firsthand accounts of events and that were created contemporaneous to those events or later recalled by eyewitnesses.

NT       Ephemera

           Manuscripts

           Moving Images

           Photographs

RT       Records

Processing

SN       The activities of appraising, arranging, describing, and safely housing archival materials.

BT       Archival Activities

NT       Appraisal

           Arrangement

           Description     

           Preservation   

Provenance

SN       The origin or source of items, such as an individual who created or received them.

UF       Respect des Fonds

BT       Arrangement Principles

RT       Original Order

Publications

SN       Works that express some thought in language, signs, or symbols that are reproduced for distribution.

BT       Outreach Services

Reader Services

SN       Activities that facilitate patron use of a repository’s facilities.

BT       Reference Services

RT       Reading Room Services

Reading Room Services

SN       Activities conducted in areas in the archives where materials are consulted by researchers, supervised by archivists.

UF       Reference Room Services

          Research Room Services

BT       Reference Services

RT       Reader Services

Records

SN      Evidentiary information created in the daily activities of an individual or organization. (In databases, collections of related data elements treated as a unit).

BT       Files

NT      Documents

          Objects

RT      Databases

Reference

SN     The act of providing information about archival holdings and making them available to researchers.

BT       Archival Activities

RT       Reference Services     

Reference Room Services

USE Reading Room Services

Reference Services

SN       Activities that assist in providing access to materials for researchers.

NT       Reader Services

            Reading Room Services

RT       Reference

Registers

SN       Documents containing entries or volumes recording names or events.

BT       Finding Aids     

RT       Calendars

            Guides

            Inventories

            Shelf Lists

Registry Principle

USE Original Order

Research Room Services

USE Reading Room Services

Respect de L’ordre Intérieur

USE Original Order

Respect des Fonds

USE Provenance

Respect for Original Order

USE Original Order

Restoration

SN       The act of rehabilitating items to return them to their original condition, which may include fabrication of missing parts with modern materials.

BT       Archival Activities

RT       Conservation

            Preservation

Selection

SN       The act of identifying materials to be added to the archives because of their enduring value.

BT       Archival Activities

RT       Acquisition

            Appraisal

            Collection Development

Shelf Lists

SN       Descriptions of a repository’s holdings, organized in the same order that the materials are stored.

BT       Finding Lists

RT       Calendars

            Guides

            Inventories

            Registers

Silver Gelatin Photographs

SN       Images recorded by a camera with metallic silver in a gelatin emulsion on a base.

UF       Gelatin Silver Photographs

BT       Photographs

Slides

SN       Images recorded by a camera on 35 mm transparent film that have been mounted for projection. 

BT       Photographs

RT       Lantern Slides

Stereographs

SN       Images recorded by a camera mounted together which give the illusion of three dimensions.        

BT       Photographs

Still Pictures

USE Movie Stills  

Tintypes

SN       Images recorded by a camera using a wet-collodion process, using a base of iron coated with black varnish.

BT       Photographs

Transparencies

SN       Images recorded by a camera on a transparent base that are unmounted.

BT       Photographs

Video Recordings

USE Videos

Videos

SN       Moving images with sound recorded on magnetic tape.

UF       Video Recordings

BT       Moving Images

Workshops

SN       Seminars that emphasize the exchange of ideas and the demonstration and application of techniques or skills.

BT       Outreach Services

Indexed Record Samples

The following bibliographic database entries describe resources that archivists, archival students, and lone arrangers might search for in order to learn more about archival management. Articles, books, computer files, and theses may be indexed as these samples show, as well as other formats.  

Article

Greene, M. A., & Meissner, D. (2005). More Product, Less Process: Revamping Traditional Archival Processing. American Archivist. 68 (2), 208-263.

Descriptors: Appraisal, Arrangement, Description, Preservation, Processing

Book

Keefe, L. E., & Inch, D. (1990). The life of a photograph: Archival processing, matting, framing, storage. Boston: Focal Press.

Descriptors: Conservation, Photographs, Preservation, Processing, Restoration

Book

Ritzenthaler, M. L., Vogt-O’Connor, D., & Ritzenthaler, m. L. (2006). Photographs: Archival care and management. Chicago: Society of American Archivists.

Descriptors: Daguerreotypes, Lantern Slides, Negatives, Photographs, Silver Gelatin Photographs, Slides, Stereographs, Tintypes, Transparencies

Computer file

Craig, B. (2005). Archival appraisal: Theory and practice. Farmington Hills, Mich: Thomson Gale.

Descriptors: Acquisition, Appraisal, Collection Development, Selection

Thesis

Moore, I. B. (1998). Archival outreach: Strategies for success. Thesis (M.A.)--Western Washington University, 1998.

Descriptors: Educational Programs, Exhibitions, Outreach, Outreach Services, Publications, Workshops

Works Consulted 

Boles, F. (2005). Selecting & appraising archives & manuscripts. Archival fundamentals series. Chicago: Society of American Archivists.

Hunter, G. S. (1997). Developing and maintaining practical archives: A how-to-do-it manual. New York: Neal-Schuman.

Kurtz, M. J. (2004). Managing archival & manuscript repositories. Archival fundamentals series. Chicago: Society of American Archivists.

Miller, F. (1990). Arranging and describing archives and manuscripts. Archival fundamentals series. Chicago: Society of American Archivists.

O’Toole, J. M., & Cox, R. J. (2006). Understanding archives & manuscripts. Archival fundamentals series. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists.

Pugh, M. J. (2005). Providing reference services for archives & manuscripts. Archival fundamentals series. Chicago: Society of American Archivists.

Yakel, E. (1994). Starting an archives. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. 

[1]  Society of American Archivists (n.d.) So You Want to Be an Archivist: An Overview of the Archival Profession. Retrieved December 1, 2018, from Society of American Archivists website: http://www.archivists.org/profession/...

If you like archives, memory, and legacy as much as I do, you might consider signing up for my email list. Every few weeks I send out a newsletter with new articles and exclusive content for readers. It’s basically my way of keeping in touch with you and letting you know what’s going on. Your information is protected and I never spam. 

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Free E-Course: Introduction to Archives

The records that you generate and collect in the course of your life or business are of immediate value to you in conducting your day-to-day business. After activities end, related records serve as evidence of your activities. Maintaining records in a consistent, organized way helps preserve them and makes them accessible for future users. These records of enduring value are your archives.

Once you know some archival principles, you can adapt professional methods to your records. As a result, you can confidently sort through your treasures and discover the stories they hold. You can more comfortably make decisions about items worth preserving, and you can wisely invest the resources you have available for the project. You will be in charge of your history instead of the other way around. 

If you'd like to learn more, sign up for my free e-course: Introduction to Archives.

I created this course for those curious about archives, both personal or family collections as well as organizational collections. You will receive an email every day for eight days that will teach you some archival foundations. At the end of each email, I will provide links for further reading. You will also be subscribed to my e-newsletter, so you never miss an update. 

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Archival Appraisal of Architectural Records

Since photography’s conception at a time when buildings were a frequent subject for the lens, photographic documentation has been instrumental in raising awareness of our architectural heritage from the ancient to the modern, urban to remote, grand to vernacular.

Viewers usually engage with the world’s great monuments through images and plans, which act as representations of the architecture itself. Rather than neutral reproductions of the past, architectural records are visual constructions with historical, aesthetic, and cultural frames of reference and connotations that evolve in response to changing contexts.

Archivists as Mediators

Just as architecture reconciles social values and fabricated forms, so too do archivists act as mediators between photographic representations of the built environment and their users, such as researchers, architects, and conservationists. When presenting photography and other architectural records as a source of historical knowledge based on visual information, archivists must interpret what is displayed in these sites, symbolizing buildings they may never have visited.

Attempting such a monumental task requires understanding that archivists are active agents in architectural records collections, as they acquire, select, interpret, describe, preserve, and make accessible their holdings.

The Challenges of Architectural Collections

Architectural records are often dispersed, voluminous, transitory, and fragile. They come from a wide range of records creators, including architects and those in building and planning, urban design, landscape architecture, and engineering. There is an equally wide range of formats, such as drawings, photos, contracts, and newspaper clippings. These records, of course, can be analog and digital. Increasingly, architectural documents are complex born-digital records created with software that is atypical for what archives maintain.

Architectural records require specialized knowledge. Most archivists are unfamiliar with building plans and need to learn how to read architectural drawings which have a vocabulary as well as a graphic language. In addition, they are bulky, and individual items may be large. Archives are often not equipped to handle the physical objects. Their cumbersome nature often means they are rolled up, which means they must be unrolled for users. They usually come in multiples, and it is not easy to discern order, versions, and duplicates. Archivists need to consider both the value of the records and the importance of the structures they are documenting. These factors must be considered with the usual attention to the repository’s collecting policy and archival collections management.

Familiarizing Yourself with Key Concepts

As an archivist, you should first identify the context of the architectural records. Look for familiar information in terms of what you know about the drawing, the buildings, and the provenance. Then you should situate the drawing by identifying critical information such as date, architect and client names, building, and location.

Consider the historical aspects of the collections, such as people, places, and events, as well as the social attributes, like ways of living and working, building, and type. You might also consider technical details about the building or the drawing itself. Most importantly, aesthetic elements should be explored, such as the architecture style.

Adapting Appraisal Guidelines

No single solution to the challenges of preserving and making accessible architectural documents exists—but archivists who are new to these collections should review appraisal guidelines established by other repositories and architectural firms. Appraisal decisions need to consider the significant space, staff, and preservation costs these collections may require. Records creators, such as architects, need to understand that they are responsible for managing their records, not only for legal and practical purposes but for cultural and historical reasons as well.

As archivists of architectural records collections become increasingly knowledgeable about their subject, they can make wise appraisal decisions and preserve architectural archives with evidential, representative, and future values for scholars.

The blog was originally published on Lucidea's blog.

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Accession Considerations for Photographs

Photographs are a wonderful asset for archival repositories because of their broad appeal. The range of users for visual materials—including artists, designers, publishers, and producers—is wider than for textual records. Accommodating all these users can be a challenge, especially if they have unreasonable deadlines and expectations.

Relevance, Authenticity, and Reliability

Archival collections management includes several issues to consider in terms of photograph acquisition. First, consider the relevance of the photographs to institutional goals. How well do the photographs fit within the collecting policy? Do they support the institution’s mission? Are they useful to the core audience or are they a draw for a desired audience? Do they fill defined gaps?

Determine the authenticity and reliability of the photographs. Archivists need to consider whether the materials are genuine. Do the images match what the donor says they are? Photographs are easily manipulated, so they are often harder to verify than textual records where characteristics of the actual record are more telling. The generation of the image comes into play. If you have the original negative, that is the first generation and any prints made are second generation. If you have the print, then the copy negative you make is second generation. Archivists want the most original version but will often take the last surviving copy.

Provenance and Records Creators

Study the images’ provenance and chain of custody. These issues are just as important as they are for any other archival acquisition. However, information on photographs is often more difficult to track down as people tend to collect images for assorted reasons, without any written data on why they did so. It can be hard to verify the connection of the images to the rest of the collection. Having provenance and chain of custody knowledge supports arrangement and description as well as access.

Think about the role of the records creator. Photographs can be documentary, journalistic, artistic, or amateur. The role of the creator, and the reasons these photographs were taken, are different in each case. Since these are being considered as archival records it is important to understand how and why the photos were created and to document that for researchers. Were images produced by an organization for public relations purposes or captured accidentally? Are they posed or candid? Aesthetics are important but not necessarily the only attribute to consider.

What Photographs Can Tell You

Consider the degree of documentation. Archivists consider documentation beyond provenance. In terms of archival collections management, is there enough information on the images in terms of caption, content, and context to prepare the finding aid and provide access to users?

What are the subject matters, genres, and formats? Do these photos complement and extend the breadth and depth of existing holdings? Do they represent key formats or genres? Do they add unique information? Also, is the source significant or are you pursuing these materials more for content?

Examine the condition, quantity, and related costs of acquiring the photographs. Do we need to keep everything, or can we weed or sample? Are the images sharp, well-composed, attractive, and high quality? Are there any risks, such as fragile color images? Also photos present some different preservation issues due to deteriorating formats, or the need for colder storage and different housing. Digital preservation issues also exist for born-digital materials.

Lastly, think about access and reproduction rights. With photos it is more likely that a researcher will want a copy to use. Researchers often make numerous photocopies of textual materials, but more likely they are trying to make efficient use of limited research time and avoiding copious notetaking, rather than because they plan to use the actual image. Photos with uncertain copyright (or any privacy ramifications) have more limited value for the archives.

Mixed Media Collections

The photos that come in as an aggregate, on their own or as part of a larger collection, will be a mixed bag. Archivists cannot look at them in isolation, but as part of the whole. The existence of textual material can clarify and enhance the photographs. What archivists are looking for is the proportion of relevant or unique materials, a ratio of high quality, information-rich photographs in good condition.

Archivists, like most people, value visual materials. Archival photographs can let users see parts of history that may not be captured in textual documents. Along with the many positive attributes of photographs come many challenges to acquisition—but working through those issues is often worth it.

The blog was originally published on Lucidea's blog.

If you like archives, memory, and legacy as much as I do, you might consider signing up for my email list. Every few weeks I send out a newsletter with new articles and exclusive content for readers. It’s basically my way of keeping in touch with you and letting you know what’s going on. Your information is protected and I never spam.

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