Why We Sleep: The New Science of Sleep and Dreams

by Matthew Walker

It is disquieting to learn that vehicular accidents caused by drowsy driving exceed those caused by alcohol and drugs combined.

The first was that humans, like de Mairan’s heliotrope plants, generated their own endogenous circadian rhythm in the absence of external light from the sun.

Indeed, the reason most living species likely adopted a circadian rhythm is to synchronize themselves and their activities, both internal (e.g., temperature) and external (e.g., feeding), with the daily orbital mechanics of planet Earth spinning on its axis, resulting in regular phases of light (sun facing) and dark (sun hiding).

Your biological circadian rhythm coordinates a drop in core body temperature as you near typical bedtime (figure 1), reaching its nadir, or low point, about two hours after sleep onset. However, this temperature rhythm is not dependent upon whether you are actually asleep. If I were to keep you awake all night, your core body temperature would still show the same pattern.

An adult’s owlness or larkness, also known as their chronotype, is strongly determined by genetics. If you are a night owl, it’s likely that one (or both) of your parents is a night owl.

For every day you are in a different time zone, your suprachiasmatic nucleus can only readjust by about one hour.

And there are consequences. Scientists have studied airplane cabin crews who frequently fly on long-haul routes and have little chance to recover. Two alarming results have emerged. First, parts of their brains—specifically those related to learning and memory—had physically shrunk, suggesting the destruction of brain cells caused by the biological stress of time-zone travel. Second, their short-term memory was significantly impaired.

The longer you are awake, the more adenosine will accumulate. Think of adenosine as a chemical barometer that continuously registers the amount of elapsed time since you woke up this morning. One consequence of increasing adenosine in the brain is an increasing desire to sleep.

The answer resides with your twenty-four-hour circadian rhythm, which offers a brief period of salvation from sleepiness. Unlike sleep pressure, your circadian rhythm pays no attention to whether you are asleep or awake. Its slow, rhythmic countenance continues to fall and rise strictly on the basis of what time of night or day it is. No matter what state of adenosine sleepiness pressure exists within the brain, the twenty-four-hour circadian rhythm cycles on as per usual, oblivious to your ongoing lack of sleep.

While a clinical sleep assessment is needed to thoroughly address this issue, an easy rule of thumb is to answer two simple questions. First, after waking up in the morning, could you fall back asleep at ten or eleven a.m.? If the answer is “yes,” you are likely not getting sufficient sleep quantity and/or quality. Second, can you function optimally without caffeine before noon? If the answer is “no,” then you are most likely self-medicating your state of chronic sleep deprivation.

Other questions that can draw out signs of insufficient sleep are: If you didn’t set an alarm clock, would you sleep past that time? (If so, you need more sleep than you are giving yourself.) Do you find yourself at your computer screen reading and then rereading (and perhaps rereading again) the same sentence? (This is often a sign of a fatigued, under-slept brain.) Do you sometimes forget what color the last few traffic lights were while driving? (Simple distraction is often the

By locking its gates shut at the onset of healthy sleep, the thalamus imposes a sensory blackout in the brain, preventing onward travel of those signals up to the cortex.

In the years since Ester’s slumber revelation, we have learned that the two stages of sleep—NREM and REM—play out in a recurring, push-pull battle for brain domination across the night. The cerebral war between the two is won and lost every ninety minutes,fn2 ruled first by NREM sleep, followed by the comeback of REM sleep. No sooner has the battle finished than it starts anew, replaying every ninety minutes.

When it comes to information processing, think of the wake state principally as reception (experiencing and constantly learning the world around you), NREM sleep as reflection (storing and strengthening those raw ingredients of new facts and skills), and REM sleep as integration (interconnecting these raw ingredients with each other, with all past experiences, and, in doing so, building an ever more accurate model of how the world works, including innovative insights and problem-solving abilities).

Why did evolution decide to outlaw muscle activity during REM sleep? Because by eliminating muscle activity you are prevented from acting out your dream experience. During REM sleep, there is a nonstop barrage of motor commands swirling around the brain, and they underlie the movement-rich experience of dreams.

Regress evolutionary time still further and we have discovered that the very simplest forms of unicellular organisms that survive for periods exceeding twenty-four hours, such as bacteria, have active and passive phases that correspond to the light-dark cycle of our planet. It is a pattern that we now believe to be the precursor of our own circadian rhythm, and with it, wake and sleep.

NREM sleep rebounds harder. The brain will consume a far larger portion of deep NREM sleep than of REM sleep on the first night after total sleep deprivation, expressing a lopsided hunger.

As with countless Greek tragedies, the end result was heartbreaking, but here in the most serious, literal way. None of the individuals had a history of coronary heart disease or stroke at the start of the study, indicating the absence of cardiovascular ill health. However, those that abandoned regular siestas went on to suffer a 37 percent increased risk of death from heart disease across the six-year period, relative to those who maintained regular daytime naps. The effect was especially strong in workingmen, where the ensuing mortality risk of not napping increased by well over 60 percent.

NREM sleep helps transfer and make safe newly learned information into long-term storage sites of the brain. But it is REM sleep that takes these freshly minted memories and begins colliding them with the entire back catalog of your life’s autobiography. These mnemonic collisions during REM sleep spark new creative insights as novel links are forged between unrelated pieces of information. Sleep cycle by sleep cycle, REM sleep helps construct vast associative networks of information within the brain. REM sleep can even take a step back, so to speak, and divine overarching insights and gist: something akin to general knowledge—that is, what a collection of information means as a whole, not just an inert back catalogue of facts. We can awake the next morning with new solutions to previously intractable problems or even be infused with radically new and original ideas.

Alcohol is one of the most powerful suppressors of REM sleep that we know of.

Of the many functions carried out by deep NREM sleep—the full roster of which we will discuss in the next chapter—it is that of synaptic pruning that features prominently during adolescence.

those older siblings or parents who could stay awake. The reason is not simply that children need more sleep than their older siblings or parents, but also that the circadian rhythm of a young child runs on an earlier schedule. Children therefore become sleepy earlier and wake up earlier than their adult parents.

If this remains perplexing to parents, a different way to frame and perhaps appreciate the mismatch is this: asking your teenage son or daughter to go to bed and fall asleep at ten p.m. is the circadian equivalent of asking you, their parent, to go to sleep at seven or eight p.m.

those who napped did markedly better, and actually improved in their capacity to memorize facts. The difference between the two groups at six p.m. was not small: a 20 percent learning advantage for those who slept.

one that was shifting fact-based memories from the temporary storage depot (the hippocampus) to a long-term secure vault (the cortex). In doing so, sleep had delightfully cleared out the hippocampus, replenishing this short-term information repository with plentiful free space. Participants awoke with a refreshed capacity to absorb new information within the hippocampus, having relocated yesterday’s imprinted experiences to a more permanent safe hold. The learning of new facts could begin again, anew, the following day.

sleep spindles

Obtain anything less than eight hours of sleep a night, and especially less than six hours a night, and the following happens: time to physical exhaustion drops by 10 to 30 percent, and aerobic output is significantly reduced.

Add to this marked impairments in cardiovascular, metabolic, and respiratory capabilities that hamper an underslept body, including faster rates of lactic acid buildup, reductions in blood oxygen saturation, and converse increases in blood carbon dioxide, due in part to a reduction in the amount of air that the lungs can expire.

After four hours of sleep for six nights, participants’ performance was just as bad as those who had not slept for twenty-four hours straight—that is, a 400 percent increase in the number of microsleeps.

Ten days of six hours of sleep a night was all it took to become as impaired in performance as going without sleep for twenty-four hours straight.

Wait for another twenty to thirty minutes, perhaps after having a cup of coffee if you really must, and only then start driving again. This,

No matter what you may have heard or read in the popular media, there is no scientific evidence we have suggesting that a drug, a device, or any amount of psychological willpower can replace sleep.

neither naps nor caffeine can salvage more complex functions of the brain, including learning, memory, emotional stability, complex reasoning, or decision-making.

Of relevance to this behavior is a recent discovery that sleep loss increases levels of circulating endocannabinoids, which, as you may have guessed from the name, are chemicals produced by the body that are very similar to the drug cannabis. Like marijuana use, these chemicals stimulate appetite and increase your desire to snack, otherwise known as having the munchies.

Weight gain caused by short sleep is not just a matter of eating more, but also a change in what you binge eat.

Epidemiological studies have established that people who sleep less are the same individuals who are more likely to be overweight or obese.

Three-year-olds sleeping just ten and a half hours or less have a 45 percent increased risk of being obese by age

In fact, there are four main clusters of the brain that spike in activity when someone starts dreaming in REM sleep: (1) the visuospatial regions at the back of the brain, which enable complex visual perception; (2) the motor cortex, which instigates movement; (3) the hippocampus and surrounding regions that we have spoken about before, which support your autobiographical memory; and (4) the deep emotional centers of the brain—the amygdala and the cingulate cortex, a ribbon of tissue that sits above the amygdala and lines the inner surface of your brain—both of which help generate and process emotions.

pause, and then say, “I know exactly what your dream is about, Kyle.” Amazed, he (and the rest of the lecture hall) awaits, my answer as though time has ground to a halt. After another long pause, I confidently enunciate the following: “Your dream, Kyle, is about time, and more specifically, about not having enough time to do the things you really want to do in life.” A wave of recognition, almost relief, washes over Kyle’s face, and the rest of the class appear equally convinced. Then I come clean. “Kyle—I have a confession. No matter what dream anyone ever tells me, I always give them that very same generic response, and it always seems to fit.” Thankfully,

themes, and emotions. Of a total of 299 dream reports that Stickgold collected from these individuals across the fourteen days, a clear rerun of prior waking life events—day residue—was found in just 1 to 2 percent. Dreams are not, therefore, a wholesale replay of our waking lives. We do not simply rewind the video of the day’s recorded experience and relive it at night, projected on the big screen of our cortex. If there is such a thing as “day residue,”

It was not, therefore, time per se that healed all wounds, but instead it was time spent in dream sleep that was providing emotional convalescence. To sleep, perchance to heal.

With the absence of such emotional acuity, normally gifted by the re-tuning skills of REM sleep at night, the sleep-deprived participants slipped into a default of fear bias, believing even gentle- or somewhat friendly looking faces were menacing. The outside world had become a more threatening and aversive place when the brain lacked REM sleep—untruthfully so.

First, if we feed a waking brain with the individual ingredients of a problem, novel connections and problem solutions should preferentially—if not exclusively—emerge after time spent in the REM dreaming state, relative to an equivalent amount of deliberative time spent awake.

What this really means in terms of boots-on-the-ground patient descriptions is the following chronic situation: difficulty falling asleep, waking up in the middle of the night, waking up too early in the morning, difficulty falling back to sleep after waking up, and feeling unrefreshed throughout the waking day. If any of the characteristics of insomnia feel familiar to you, and have been present for several months,

While the reasons remain unclear, insomnia is almost twice as common in women than in men,

The two most common triggers of chronic insomnia are psychological: (1) emotional concerns, or worry, and (2) emotional distress, or anxiety.

The sympathetic nervous system switches on in response to threat and acute stress that, in our evolutionary past, was required to mobilize a legitimate fight-or-flight response. The physiological consequences are increased heart rate, blood flow, metabolic rate, the release of stress-negotiating chemicals such as cortisol, and increased brain activation, all of which are beneficial in the acute moment of true threat or danger. However, the fight-or-flight response is not meant to be left in the “on” position for any prolonged period of time.

Simply put, the insomnia patients could not disengage from a pattern of altering, worrisome, ruminative brain activity.

Recursive loops of emotional programs, together with retrospective and prospective memory loops, keep playing in the mind, preventing the brain from shutting down and switching into sleep mode. It is telling that a direct and causal connection exists between the fight-or-flight branch of the nervous system and all of these emotion-, memory-, and alertness-related regions of the brain.

He was alleged to have stayed awake for eleven days straight to watch all the games of the 2012 European soccer championships, all the while working at his job each day. On day 12, Xiaoshan was found dead in his apartment by his mother from an apparent lack of sleep.