The second, sometimes known as “the defeat of the powers” understanding of the cross, also stays close to the political meaning.15 Now, it is not simply the Roman and aristocratic rulers in Judea who are seen as responsible, but the “powers” they represent and incarnate. The language is found primarily in letters attributed to Paul: the world is in bondage to “the principalities and powers,” “the elemental spirits of the universe,” “the prince of the power of the air.”
