For many in the black community at the time and thereafter, Garvey’s movement was anything but a failure. According to one contemporary, “it was an economic failure … but a psychological success … [and] created a spirit that has yet to be paralleled in any other black movement.” Earl and Louise Little were loyal Garveyites in Chicago who rejected black integration and the “Uncle Tom-ism” of the black middle class. Their son, Malcolm X, would resurrect Garvey’s vision years later, as would the Black Panthers, the Nation of Islam, Rastafarianism, and other black radical groups.
