Introducing Psychology: A Graphic Guide

by Nigel C. Benson

Positive Reinforcement is when there’s an increase in behaviour by receiving anything that is pleasant (for example, food pellets for hungry rat). Negative Reinforcement is when there’s an increase in behaviour by avoiding something unpleasant (for example, rat pressing lever to avoid mild electric shock). Punishment is when there’s a decrease in behaviour by anything that is unpleasant.

An important question for Rotter is: Where is your Locus of Control? There are basically two types of people, depending on their upbringing… WHICH TYPE ARE YOU? 1. Internal Locus of Control people believe that reinforcement depends on personal efforts – thinking they are in charge of their lives and acting accordingly. They are physically and mentally healthier and more socially skilled. Their parents are supportive, generous with praise, consistent with discipline, and non-authoritarian. 2. External Locus of Control people believe that reinforcement depends on outside sources – so they make less attempts at improving their lives.

The Bobo Doll Experiments Albert Bandura (b. 1925) developed a version of Behaviourism in the early 1960s, initially called “Sociobehaviorism” and then Social Cognitive Theory. Behaviour doesn’t always have to be directly reinforced for it to occur. We can learn through simply observing others and seeing the consequences of their actions. This important “second-hand” learning is called “Vicarious Learning” or Observational Learning.

Although Psychology began in Germany, it developed in the USA through Structuralism, Functionalism and Behaviourism. But it was back in Germany that Behaviourism’s major rival developed, at the same time, in Gestaltism – led by Wertheimer, Koffka and Köhler. (Although fate eventually also took them to the USA to escape the Nazis in the 1930s.)

What does “Gestalt” mean? There’s no accurate translation of Gestalt (hence the original German word!) but, loosely, Gestalt means “form”, “shape”, “pattern”… with the emphasis being on “the whole”.

The Phi Phenomenon Wertheimer made a simple set-up with two lights shining through two slits.

Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) was the main spokesman. He worked with Max Planck (founder of modern quantum physics), which strongly influenced his scientific approach. Köhler’s most famous work was studying chimpanzees on Tenerife in the Canary Islands from 1913. The outbreak of World War I apparently stranded him there.

This apparently spontaneous understanding of the situation, and the sudden solution, Köhler called Insight (Einsicht). It’s also often called the “Ah-Ha!” phenomenon. As a Learning Theory, it’s important because, unlike the other three, it takes into account the thought processes of the individual. People, and other animals, can learn by THINKING, not just by (“mindless”) conditioning or imitation.

Gestalt Principles of Perception

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) extended Gestaltism to include human needs, personality, social influences – and especially motivation. Following Köhler’s lead, and influenced by the pioneer quantum physicist Max Planck (1858-1947), he used the Field Theory of physics as a parallel for human situations. Physicists after the 19th century thought less about the individual components of matter, (atoms, etc.) and more in terms of “Fields of Force” – regions or spaces affected by forces, such as magnetism, electricity, etc.

Lewin also provided us with a classic study on 3 “Styles of Leadership” in boys’ groups: Authoritarian, Democratic and Laissez-Faire (Lewin, Lippitt, and White, 1939).

(a) The “Computer Model” The mind is seen as a sort of computer…

Maslow Abraham Maslow (1908-70) was the “Spiritual Father” of Humanistic Psychology.

Rogerian Therapy Rogers developed a form of psychotherapy called Person Centred Therapy (or “Client Centred”). The essence of PCT is that the Client (not “patient”) is responsible for improving his or her life. This was a deliberate change from both the Psychoanalytic and the Behaviourist approaches – and conventional medicine in general – where patients are “diagnosed” by a “doctor” (or other “expert”) and GIVEN “treatment”. In Rogerian Therapy, the therapist is not responsible for changes in the client.

Rogers particularly emphasized the role of the Self Concept, which consists of three parts – Ideal Self, Self Image and Self Esteem.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980), studied cognitive development and showed that children are not just immature humans but people who think differently to adults. Piaget produced four inter-related theories.

Schemas (or schemata) develop through two processes: (a) Assimilation (from biology) means “to take in”, e.g. the early “Grasping Schema” enables the baby to grab and pick up small convenient objects. (b) Accommodation (also from biology) means “to change”, e.g. the “Grasping Schema” develops by altering to cater for objects different in size, shape and weight.

Piaget found that children under 9 typically decide what is “good” by using rules taught by others. In Piaget’s terms, they are heteronomous (Greek, “from another”). Later, when they can decide more for themselves, they become autonomous (“from oneself”). Young children usually decide from the OUTCOME of actions, rather than the INTENTION. Piaget tested this by telling pairs of stories to each child…

He found evidence that maternal deprivation correlates positively with juvenile delinquency (Bowlby, 1944), and so produced his (emotive!) conclusion that mothers should stay at home with their children. This argument was used by governments to persuade mothers not to go out to work – a convenient ploy to get unemployed ex-servicemen back to work in the early 1950s.

The Halo Effect occurs when we generalize a person’s Central Traits.

Attitudes This is Social Psychology’s cornerstone. There’s much research especially on changing attitudes for social control (war propaganda, political campaigning, health and safety) and advertising. An attitude can be divided into 3 aspects: 1. Cognitive – the beliefs (factual & neutral) e.g. “Smoking is a major cause of cancer”. 2. Affective – the emotional feelings e.g. “I hate the smell of cigarettes”. 3. Behavioural – the actions taken e.g. “I only eat in non-smoking restaurants”.

Obedience Milgram (1963) asked participants to act as “teacher” in a “learning” situation, giving increasingly larger “electric shocks” for each wrong answer. The “pupil” in the next room could be heard screaming, “I can’t stand the pain!” (at “180 volts”) and in agony (at “270 volts”).

Summary of Learning Theories: 1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) – here 2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner) – here 3. Social Learning (Bandura) – here 4. Cognitive Learning (Köhler) – here

Type Theories Some Psychologists have concentrated on general personality “Types”. For example, C. G. Jung’s Introvert or Extravert developed by Hans Eysenck using his questionnaires (EPI, EPQ) along with a Neurotic – Stable dimension. Eysenck argued that these are mainly inborn.