Introducing Psychology: A Graphic Guide

by Nigel C. Benson

correlation does not show causation.

One very important aspect of this process is that a Theory can only be DISPROVED, it cannot be PROVED…

NOTHING CAN BE PROVED. This is simply because NO amount of evidence is sufficient – there’s always the possibility of new, conflicting, evidence.

So, just collecting lots of data to SUPPORT a Theory is of limited use: a good Scientist looks for evidence to DISPROVE a Theory.

Science is a bit like Law: even in court, it’s not possible to PROVE someone is guilty – only that they are, “beyond reasonable doubt”. There have been many convictions where later evidence has led to a reversal!

Psychology was officially born in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) opened the first recognized laboratory for the study of human behaviour in Leipzig, Germany.

the Greeks were often reluctant to MEASURE things. Plato and Aristotle both believed that the truth could be found through thinking rather than doing.

Natural Selection comes in two parts. First, changes can occur from one generation to the next. This is now known to be random “mutations” in the genes – for example, those caused by natural radiation. (Darwin didn’t know why changes occurred, just that they did.) Second, there is the meaning of “Selection”: Changes that are beneficial give the new individual a better chance to survive. Conversely, adverse genetic changes give less chance of survival.

Neighbouring islands had different food: some had plenty of nuts but few insects, whereas others had more insects but few nuts. When mutation created birds with large bills the “nut” islands enabled them to survive, while the thin-billed birds there died out. BUT birds mutating with thin bills were able to survive on the “insect” islands, where the larger-billed died out. Where animals fit into the environment in this way is called Survival of the fittest.

Galton published Correlations (1888) which illustrated relationships graphically – for instance, that tall men are not as tall as their fathers and short men are taller than their fathers.

Edward Titchener (1867-1927), an English student and translator of Wundt, went to the United States (1893) to set up his own laboratory at Cornell. (Oxford refused: no Psychology until 1936!)

Consequently, schools should be places where children interact and experiment, according to individual needs and “intelligent inquiry”. Thus, Dewey founded “progressive education”.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience.

Skinner found that the optimum period between response and reinforcement is about half a second, i.e. almost immediately. This is very important. For example, if a parent wants to reward or punish a child, then to be effective it should be done straight away.

Why Punishment is Often Ineffective 1. In general, punishment is simply less effective because it causes SLOWER and LESS learned responses. It’s better to use a combination of reward (Positive Reinforcement) and withdrawal of reward (Non-Reinforcement). 2. Punishment often causes the individual to AVOID BEING PUNISHED rather than stop the undesired behaviour… 3. Punishment can cause the individual to associate the punishment with the PUNISHER, rather than the BEHAVIOUR. 4. Punishment may train an individual about what NOT to do, but it doesn’t train WHAT to do. Skinner also found that many people (parents, teachers, judges…) make false assumptions about what is reward or punishment.

According to Skinner, each individual has his or her own needs. Therefore, which reinforcement will “work”, or not, must be found by experimenting with that particular animal or person.

Positive Reinforcement is when there’s an increase in behaviour by receiving anything that is pleasant (for example, food pellets for hungry rat). Negative Reinforcement is when there’s an increase in behaviour by avoiding something unpleasant (for example, rat pressing lever to avoid mild electric shock). Punishment is when there’s a decrease in behaviour by anything that is unpleasant.

Skinner realized that a lot of so-called “Problem” or “Naughty” children were really just normal, healthy, active children who had frequently been inadvertently “mis-trained” by their parents, teachers, etc. For example, the tendency to give attention (Positive Reinforcement) only when the child is “naughty”, while ignoring the child when it is “good”. Even if the child is always “good” (which often just means “quiet and inactive”, i.e. not necessarily healthy), then it may grow up to be neurotic – scared to do anything…

Skinner argued that some children and adults need to have their behaviour modified to fit into society and lead happier, more fulfilled lives. With children, it’s usually a matter of changing the parents’ behaviour as much as the child’s. The Psychologist typically begins by helping the parents decide specifically what types of behaviour are desirable (Stage 1) and what are not (Stage 2). The key words are consistency – always reinforcing particular behaviour in the same way – and firmness – sticking to the programme.

Julian Rotter (b. 1916) invented the term Social Learning Theory (1947) when studying social interactions in laboratory conditions. For him, humans have EXPECTATIONS about the effects of their behaviour, the kind of reinforcement they get, etc. In addition, people have their individual VALUES that they apply to their behaviour and the reinforcements they receive. An important question for Rotter is: Where is your Locus of Control? 1. Internal Locus of Control people believe that reinforcement depends on personal efforts – thinking they are in charge of their lives and acting accordingly. They are physically and mentally healthier and more socially skilled. Their parents are supportive, generous with praise, consistent with discipline, and non-authoritarian. 2. External Locus of Control people believe that reinforcement depends on outside sources – so they make less attempts at improving their lives.

Behaviour doesn’t always have to be directly reinforced for it to occur. We can learn through simply observing others and seeing the consequences of their actions. This important “second-hand” learning is called “Vicarious Learning” or Observational Learning.