Introducing Psychology: A Graphic Guide

by Nigel C. Benson

“Psychology” comes from two words: psyche and logos. The word psyche (pronounced “sigh-key”) is from the Greek word Ψυχη – meaning “breath of life”, i.e. “soul or spirit”, loosely translated as MIND.

There are also differences in the methods used. In Psychology, there is emphasis on experiments, but in Sociology that method is not usually possible – for practical and ethical reasons – so observations and surveys are more commonly used.

the 6 main approaches or perspectives within Psychology: PSYCHODYNAMIC; BEHAVIOURISM; COGNITIVE (including Gestalt); HUMANISTIC; BIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL; SOCIAL-CULTURAL

Psychiatrists have a Medical Degree, plus a Psychiatric Qualification, and belong to a Medical Association. (Only they have the authority to prescribe drugs.) But some Psychologists also specialize, with extra training, in helping people with mental disorders – they are Clinical Psychologists.

On differences between psychologist and psychiatrist

For most people today, “science” is about taking MEASUREMENTS and coming up with THEORIES to explain things – with both processes working together. This approach may seem obvious, but it hasn’t always been this way.

Karl Popper (1902-94) set up a criterion: THEORIES can be divided into those that are SCIENTIFIC (i.e. disprovable) and those that are NON-SCIENTIFIC (i.e. not disprovable). NON-SCIENTIFIC THEORIES include: most religious ideas (e.g. The Existence of God), many political ideas (Marxism, Capitalism), Freudian ideas (e.g. the contents of the Unconscious Mind), and daily horoscopes found in newspapers.

Francis Galton (1822-1911), Darwin’s cousin, was keen on evolution and heredity. He founded “Individual Differences” and discovered the uniqueness of finger-prints (1892).

Functionalism was an important bridge between Structuralism and Behaviourism –

The Oedipus Complex Each boy, unconsciously, goes through a sequence of sub-stages: (a) Developing a strong desire for his mother. (b) Noticing the close bond between his parents (sleeping together). (c) Becoming jealous of his father and hating him. (d) Being afraid of his father, who might discover his true feelings (i.e. the boy’s desire, jealousy and hatred) (e) Fearing the ultimate punishment for a boy – CASTRATION!

learning, a topic central to Psychology.

OBJECT has become sexually conditioned, a fetish.

Looking at pornography, in magazines or videos, is a form of voyeurism.

Thorndike produced two “laws” of learning: (1) The Law of Exercise – repetition strengthens learning. (Or, “Practice makes perfect”.) Learning poetry, lines of a play, math’s tables by repetition is called Rote Learning or “Parrot Fashion”. (2) The Law of Effect – the effect of reward is to strengthen learning. (Or, “If it’s pleasurable, it will be repeated”.) Thorndike found reward (law 2) to be more effective than mere repetition (law 1).

Punishment can cause the individual to associate the punishment with the PUNISHER, rather than the BEHAVIOUR.

Punishment may train an individual about what NOT to do, but it doesn’t train WHAT to do.

Skinner realized that a lot of so-called “Problem” or “Naughty” children were really just normal, healthy, active children who had frequently been inadvertently “mis-trained” by their parents, teachers, etc. For example, the tendency to give attention (Positive Reinforcement) only when the child is “naughty”, while ignoring the child when it is “good”.

Even if the child is always “good” (which often just means “quiet and inactive”, i.e. not necessarily healthy), then it may grow up to be neurotic – scared to do anything…

TASK: On a blank sheet of paper, write exactly what you want to achieve over the next 5 years. Don’t be vague. Don’t just write “rich”, “successful”… Instead, write “achieving a capital of __________”, or “successful at _______________________________”.

Todo

theory of SELF-ACTUALIZATION: the innate human motivation, that each of us has, to ACHIEVE OUR POTENTIAL by using and developing our talents and abilities. Each time we experience such a sense of fulfillment is called a PEAK EXPERIENCE.

By Abraham Maslow

Psychologically “healthy” people show 1. An objective perception of reality 2. Acceptance of their own natures 3. A commitment and dedication to some type of work 4. Naturalness, simplicity in behaviour, and spontaneity 5. Independence; a need for autonomy and privacy 6. Intense mystical / peak experiences 7. Empathy with, and affection for, all humanity – including strong social interests 8. Resistance to conformity 9. Democratic characteristics 10. Keenness to be creative

The tendency to use our own ethnic or cultural group’s norms and values to define what’s “natural” and “correct” is called “ethnocentrism”.

it’s stress rather than divorce itself that can be damaging.

There’s much research especially on changing attitudes for social control (war propaganda, political campaigning, health and safety) and advertising.

anthropomorphism

When conflicts do arise, when competing for a mate or defending territory, animals will typically use Ritualized Aggression.

Actually, murder, i.e. intentional killing of a member of the same species, is rare. Jane Goodall studied chimps in the wild for over twelve years before witnessing the first murder!

Neurotic – only part of personality affected – person is aware e.g. phobias, obsessions, anxiety Psychotic – whole personality affected – person is not aware e.g. schizophrenia

Books, and other media versions, sell well – even though it’s mainly at the “Popular Psychology” end of the market (an unfortunate term, increasingly used in bookshops). Sadly, of course, this is polluted by the dross of charlatans out to make easy money! Usually, biographical notes and quality reviews give some guide to value.

One major concern is the fact that virtually anyone can legally call themselves a “psychologist”, regardless of qualifications and experience. Particularly worrying is that people set themselves up as “therapists” or even “psychotherapists” (which can be a misleading or even meaningless title) and attempt to treat people.

General Needs Along with high standards of living, many people have high expectations (both for themselves and others) and are easily frustrated, impatient, and disappointed – with subsequent feelings of depression. Psychology can continue identifying such social problems, and offer ways for tackling them at both individual and institutional levels.

A major problem with most penal systems is that they are unscientific. Assumptions are made about what will change behaviour, without proper testing and monitoring.

“punishment” doesn’t work (as in the huge re-offending rates for ex-prisoners), there’s little attempt to alter it. The judgements and convictions of courts are, anyway, usually based on a mish-mash of personal or legal opinion, public pressure, social isolation, revenge, and tradition – before any considerations of social rehabilitation.

In the wrong hands, of course, Psychopolitics could be dangerous. A democratically elected government could stay in power indefinitely if it was able to accurately assess public demand and satisfy that (at least long enough to get through the next election!).

Sounds familiar?

Philosophy can provide important insights into the very practical problems of morality.

Psychology has a huge amount to offer for those who are willing to take the time and trouble to study it in some depth, and apply the findings to their lives and those around them. It’s hoped that this book has provided a useful introduction and summary of the subject as a whole, encouraging further interest and application.