himself. In 1629 he recklessly announced an Edict of Restitution which transferred a vast mass of property and territory from the Protestants back to the Catholics. Using a start point of 1555 to establish religious ownership, this visionary scheme alienated all but the most zealous or supine. Many Protestant rulers had grabbed territories from the Catholics since 1555 and major cities such as Bremen and Magdeburg were at stake. Allies or neutrals were appalled at Ferdinand’s hubris – but also by a clear sense that this was only an instalment: that the nature of his faith meant that even the
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