Cultural Anthropology before It Was a Science

Cultural Anthropology developed into a social science in the 19th century. But there were most definitely those who studied other cultures before this. However, such study was rarely systematized. Here is a section of my book on “Cultural Anthropology and Christian Missions.” This following is from Chapter 3

Ancient Travelogues

Cultural Anthropology is a modern science. It only goes back into the 19th century. The term “anthropology” actually goes back to the 16th century, but its use was more in line with what today would be known as Theological Anthropology— looking at humans as physical, rational, spiritual, and moral beings. That is not to say that there was no one who looked at foreign cultures. In fact, there were many who did. Table 1 has a few examples of cultural travelers.

None of these individuals would have thought themselves, primarily, as students of culture. Generally their job forced them to travel and interact with other cultures. Most had a surface level understanding of culture (Level 1 or 2 of acculturation. See Table 3 in Chapter 6). Additionally, the writings of these earlier travelers often contained things that were not true. In some cases this may be because they were told things that they did not personally verify. In others, it may have been more intentional, not wanting the truth getting in the way of an entertaining story. Finally, most commonly, the writings of these early travelers were very ethnocentric. They judged other cultures negatively through the lens of their own home culture. Each commonly saw their own culture as the pinnacle of civilization.

NameEthnicityOccupationWrote aboutTimeframeHerodotusGreekMilitaryMediterranean region5th century BCAhmad Ibn FadlanArabianReligious envoyCentral Asia, Eastern Europe10th centuryMarco PoloItalianMerchantAsia14th century ADZhau DaguanChineseDiplomatKhmer Empire14th century ADZhen HeChineseNaval captainIndian Ocean region15th century AD

Table 1. Select Early Travelers

“Ethnographer” Missionaries2

Some would call Bernardino de Sahugan the “First Anthroploogist” or “Father of Ethnography.” He was born in Spain around 1500AD and died in 1590. He was a Franciscan friar and in 1529 traveled to Mexico to work with the native Aztecs. He studied the Aztec language and became an expert writing a dictionary and a book of grammar.

Being a Christian monk, part of his work was to convert Aztecs to Christianity, and to instruct them in the faith. However, de Sahugan saw his ability to communicate effectively with the native people came through understanding them not only in terms of language, but also in terms of broader culture. In Tepeopulco, he asked from local leaders to be assigned to work with experienced men who he could instruct, and who could instruct him. This interaction led to considerable writing on the history and culture of the native peoples in addition to language.

De Sahugan saw his work as more than an academic study— he saw it of value for Christian ministers to understand and relate to the people. Not everyone saw it that way. For example, his “Historia” was not made readily available to others during his lifetime, nor in subsequent generations. There was a fear that the work would encourage natives to dwell too much on their “heathen past.” Additionally, the work also spoke harshly on aspects of the Spanish conquest. The work sat in a convent for over two centuries until “discovered” in 1800 and published in 1831.

While de Sahugan was an early and good example of missionary as ethnographer, many missionaries found themselves in this role, producing works on local cultures for both religious and academic purposes. An early example of a Protestant missionary in this was Abraham Rogerius (1609-1649)3 who wrote considerably on the Hindu faith. Four aspects of the work of these early missionaries involved:

Learn to communicate effectively in the culture.Learn to behave and interact positively and effectively with the people, including in subtle aspects of culture.Develop effective strategies to convert members to the Christian faith, with wisdom as to what aspects of the local culture can be beneficial to contextualize or accommodate.(Sometimes) Create written works to share their learning to those from their home country for purposes of government, church, or academia.4

Cultural Anthropology today focuses on seeking to understand and document rather than change. Because of this, the work of these early missionaries, and especially their motives, would be strongly challenged. Nevertheless, their efforts serve as the beginning of movement to understand, often sympathetically, other cultures and share this understanding with the broader world.