January 2, 1905 – Russo-Japanese War: Port Arthur falls to Japanese forces, ending a nine-month siege
By December 1904, the ever-wideningtrenches and tunnels which the Japanese were building soon threatened theRussian fortifications. The Japanesedetonated powerful explosives on the fortifications, bringing down the walls ofFort Chikuan(on December 18), Fort Erhlung (on December 28), and Fort Sungshu(on December 31). The Russian commandersof these garrisons were forced to surrender. On January 1, 1905, the Russian commander of Port Arthur offered to surrender, which was accepted bythe Japanese. Four days later, theJapanese Third Army entered Port Arthur. Thenine-month battle and siege of Port Arthur had cost the Japanese 58,000 casualties. But with its victory, the Japanese Army nowcontrolled the whole Liaodong Peninsula. Furthermore, the Japanese Third Army was nowfree to move north to join the continuing battle for southern Manchuria. Port Arthur’sfall demoralized the Russian Army in Manchuria,and shocked the Russian population.
(Taken from Russo-Japanese War – Wars of the 20th Century – Twenty Wars in Asia – Vol. 5)
Background Bythe 19th century, Russia’sterritorial expansion into eastern Asia was encroaching into China, which was then ruled by theweakening Qing Dynasty. Russia and Chinasigned two treaties (the Treaty of Aigun in 1858 and theConvention of Peking in 1860), where China ceded to Russia the territory known as OuterManchuria (present-day southern region of the Russian Far East). Then in 1896, by the terms of a constructionconcession, China allowed Russia to build the Chinese Eastern Railway, which would connect the eastern end of theTrans-Siberian Railway to Vladivostok, through northernInner Manchuria (present-day Northeast China). In July 1897, construction work on this newrailway line began.
In December 1897, the RussianNavy started to use the port of Lushunkou, located at the southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula. Four months later, in March 1898, Russia and Chinasigned an agreement, where the Chinese government granted a 25-year lease(called the “Convention for the Lease of the LiaotungPeninsula”) to Russia for Lushunkou and the surrounding areas,collectively called the Kwantung Leased Territory. The Russians soon renamed Lushunkou as Port Arthur, and developed it intoits main naval base in the Far East. Port Arthurwas operational all year long, compared to the other Russian naval base at Vladivostok, which was unusableduring winter. Both the Chinese EasternRailway and Kwantung Leased Territory allowed Russiato consolidate its hold over Inner Manchuria (although the region legallyremained part of China), which was furthered when Russia began constructing, in1899, the South Manchuria Railway to connect Harbinwith Port Arthur, via Mukden. Also by thelatter 19th century, Russiawas establishing firmer political and economic ties with the Korean Empire’sweak Joseon Dynasty.
Meanwhile, Japan (which had only recently industrializedand was emerging as a regional military power) also harbored ambitions insouthern Manchuria and Korea. For over two centuries (1633-1853), Japanhad implemented a near total isolationist policy from the outside world. But in the 1850s, Japanwas forced (under threat of military action) to sign treaties with the United Statesand European powers to establish diplomatic and trade relations. Seeing itself powerless against an attack bythe West, Japan reunifiedunder its emperor and then began a massive industrialization and modernizationprogram patterned after the West, which dramatically overturned and completelyaltered Japan’straditional feudal-based agricultural society. Within a period of one generation, Japan had become a modern,industrialized, and prosperous state, with the government placing particularemphasis on building up its military forces to the level matching those in theWest.
In the 1870s, Japan set its sights to emulating European-styleimperialist expansion (during this time, European powers were aggressivelyestablishing colonies in Asia and Africa), and turned to its old rival, Korea. Korea,although nominally sovereign and independent, was a tributary state of China. In September 1875, after failing to establishdiplomatic relations with Korea,Japan sent a warship to Korea. Using its artillery, the Japanese ship openedfire and devastated the coastal defenses of Ganghwa Island, Korea. Six months later, February 1876, Japan sentsix warships to Korea, forcing the Korean government to sign a treaty withJapan, the Gangwa Treaty, which among other provisions, established diplomaticrelations between the two countries, and forced Korea to open a number of portsto trade with Japan. Thereafter,European powers followed, opening diplomatic and trade ties with Korea, and ending the latter’s self-imposedisolationist policy (Koreauntil then had been known as the “Hermit Kingdom”).
But Japan was interested not only in opening tradewith Korea, but indominating the whole Korean Peninsula. Subsequently, Japanstarted to interfere in Korea’sinternal affairs. Before long, theKorean ruling elite became divided into two factions: the pro-Japanese faction,comprising progressives who wanted to modernize Korea in association withJapan; and the pro-Chinese faction, comprising the conservatives, including theruling Joseon monarchy, who were firmly anti-Japanese and wanted Korea’snational development under the tutelage of China or with the West.
The growing Japaneseinterference in Korea’saffairs made conflict between Japanand Chinainevitable. War finally broke out in theFirst Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), where Japanese forces triumpheddecisively. In the peace treaty (April1895) that ended the war, Chinarecognized Korea’sindependence, (until then, Koreawas a tributary state of China),China paid Japan an indemnity, and ceded to Japan theeastern part of the Liaodong Peninsula (as well as Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands). In the aftermath, Japanreplaced China as thedominant controlling power in Korea.
But immediately thereafter, Russia, which also had power ambitions insouthern Manchuria, particularly the vital Lushunkou (later Port Arthur), convinced Franceand Germany to join itscause and force Japan toreturn the Liaodong Peninsula to China,in exchange for China payingJapana larger indemnity. Japan reluctantly acquiesced,seeing that its forces were powerless to fight three European powers at thesame time.
Cash-strapped China sought financial assistance from Russia to pay its large indemnity to Japan. Russiareleased a loan to China,but also proposed a Sino-Russian alliance against Japan. In June 1896, Chinaand Russia signed the secretLi-Lobanov Treaty where Russiaagreed to intervene if Chinawas attacked by Japan. In exchange, Chinaallowed Russia the use ofChinese ports for the Russian Navy, as well as for Russiato build a railway line across North East China (the Chinese Eastern Railway) to Vladivostok. As the treaty also permitted the presence ofRussian troops in the region, Russiasoon gained full control of northeast China. Then after signing the lease for the Liaodong Peninsula, particularly vital Port Arthur, Russiagained control of southern Manchuria as well.
Meanwhile, in Korea,anti-Japanese sentiment intensified further when in October 1895, Queen Min,wife of King Gojong, was assassinated, with most Koreans blaming the Japanese,because of the queen’s strong anti-Japanese stance. Fearing for his life, Korean King Gojong fledto the Russian diplomatic office. WithRussian protection, in October 1897, King Gojong proclaimed the Korean Empire,an act to symbolize the end of China’sdomination of his country. Koreans werestrongly anti-imperialistic and desired self-rule. Most Koreans also wanted to establishstronger ties with European countries and the United States to stop what they believed were Japan’s ambitions to take overtheir nation.
Undeterred, in November 1901,Japan approached Russia with a proposal: in exchange for Japan recognizing Manchuria as falling withinthe Russian sphere of control and influence, Russiawould recognize Japan’scontrol over Korea. As early as June 1896, Japan and Russiahad agreed to form a joint protectorate over Korea, which would serve as abuffer zone between them. But in April1898, in another treaty, Russiaacknowledged Japan’scommercial and economic interests in Korea
In January 1902, Japan andBritain signed a military pact (the Anglo-Japanese Alliance), where the British promised to intervene militarily for Japan in the event that in a Russo-Japanese war,a third party entered the war on Russia’sside against Japan. The British motive in the treaty was to curb Russia’s territorial expansionism in East Asia;for Japan, the alliancestrengthened its resolve to go to war with Russia.
Subsequently, Russia appeared to be willing to compromise withJapan, even indicating itsintention to withdraw from Manchuria. In March 1902, Russiaand France signed a militarypact, but the French government stated that it would intervene for Russia (if the latter went to war) only in a warin Europe and not in Asia. As a result, Russiawould have to fight alone in a war with Japan.
A faction in the Russiangovernment, led by the Foreign Ministry, wanted a peaceful settlement with Japan. However, Tsar Nicholas II, the Russian monarch, and the Russianmilitary high command, pressed for continued Russian expansionism in the FarEast, being confident that the Russian military, with a long history of wars inEurope, could easily defeat upstart Japan. Then when Russiadid not withdraw from Manchuria, in July 1903, the Japanese envoy in St. Petersburg (Russia’s capital) issued a diplomaticprotest. But in August 1903, Japan again offered Russiathe proposal that in exchange for Russia’srecognition of Japan’scontrol of Korea, Japan would accept Russia’scontrol of Manchuria. In October 1903, Russiamade a counter-proposal with the following stipulations: that Manchuria fellunder Russia’s sphere ofinfluence; that Russiarecognized Japan’scommercial interests in Korea;and that all territory north of the 39th parallel in the Korean Peninsulawould be a demilitarized buffer zone where no Russian or Japanese forces coulddeploy.
Each side’s proposals wereunacceptable to the other, but the two sides agreed to hold talks. By January 1904, with no progress being madein the talks, Japanese representatives concluded that the Russians werestalling. Again, Japan repeated its August 1903 offer, but afterreceiving no reply, on February 6, 1904, Japancut diplomatic ties with Russia. Two days later, Japandeclared war on Russia.
