Michael S. Heiser's Blog, page 62

Historical Adam and Genetic Adam and Eve: Update

In light of the discussion on this blog some time ago about recent research in human genetics and the historical Adam, I thought readers might find two recent items on “genetic Adam and Eve” of interest.

“Genetic” Adam and Eve Could Have Been Contemporaries?

Nature Weighs in on Genetic Adam and Eve

As I noted in my own posts on this issue, the whole genetic discussion is far from resolved. It’s going to be a while before it is. The field of statistical genetics in particular is young. This discussion will go on for a long time.

 

Technorati Tags: Adam, Eve, genetics, Nature

Archaeologists Discover the House of Elisha – Not So Fast

I’d encourage readers to check out this worthwhile post from Todd Bolen of the Bible Places blog. It’s a measured, coherent response to a sensationalist claim reported by CBN. The archaeologist involved (Ami Mazar) and epigrapher Stephen Pfann (a friend of mine) are the real deal. Nevertheless, Bolen’s cautions are appropriate.

Technorati Tags: archaeology, elisha, house, inscription, Mazar, pfann, rehov

Biblical Theology, Poverty, and Social Justice: Part 11: Parable of the Talents

We’re close to the end of our series on social justice. Thanks to all those who’ve stayed with it, as it’s taken quite a while. In this post I want to share some thoughts about the parable of the talents (minas). 

Introducing the Parable of the Talents

One of the passages that is often brought into the discussion of the New Testament teaching about money and wealth (and so, poverty and justice) is Matt 25:14-30, the parable of the talents. The context of the parable is Jesus’ answer to the question “What will the kingdom of heaven be like.”

14 “For it will be like a man going on a journey, who called his servants and entrusted to them his property. 15 To one he gave five talents, to another two, to another one, to each according to his ability. Then he went away. 16 He who had received the five talents went at once and traded with them, and he made five talents more. 17 So also he who had the two talents made two talents more. 18 But he who had received the one talent went and dug in the ground and hid his master’s money. 19 Now after a long time the master of those servants came and settled accounts with them. 20 And he who had received the five talents came forward, bringing five talents more, saying, ‘Master, you delivered to me five talents; here I have made five talents more.’ 21 His master said to him, ‘Well done, good and faithful servant. You have been faithful over a little; I will set you over much. Enter into the joy of your master.’ 22 And he also who had the two talents came forward, saying, ‘Master, you delivered to me two talents; here I have made two talents more.’ 23 His master said to him, ‘Well done, good and faithful servant. You have been faithful over a little; I will set you over much. Enter into the joy of your master.’ 24 He also who had received the one talent came forward, saying, ‘Master, I knew you to be a hard man, reaping where you did not sow, and gathering where you scattered no seed, 25 so I was afraid, and I went and hid your talent in the ground. Here you have what is yours.’ 26 But his master answered him, ‘You wicked and slothful servant! You knew that I reap where I have not sown and gather where I scattered no seed? 27 Then you ought to have invested my money with the bankers, and at my coming I should have received what was my own with interest. 28 So take the talent from him and give it to him who has the ten talents. 29 For to everyone who has will more be given, and he will have an abundance. But from the one who has not, even what he has will be taken away. 30 And cast the worthless servant into the outer darkness. In that place there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.’

Some Observations

The first thing that is transparent is that the master in the parable owns private property (v. 14) and that ownership is not condemned. The master is also apparently wealthy, since he had servants and had money to entrust to those servants. The master was therefore free to handle his affairs as he chose since the property was his. While the reach of the parable is limited, there is no hint that private property (and wealth) is inherently suspect in the eyes of a just God.

Second, the act of “trading” performed by the servants to increase the master’s wealth is viewed as a virtue. The word translated “trading” here is ἐργάζομαι (ergazomai). The word can speak of physical labor (see 1 Cor 4:12 where it is translated “working [with our own hands"; 1 Thess 4:11 - Paul commands believers to "work [with your own hands]“). In this parable the servant therefore is working with money (see “traded with them [the talents]” in v. 16). Consequently, the enterprise of handling money is not condemned, but endorsed.

Third, the effort described above on the part of the servants that produces more wealth is also viewed as a virtue. This means that making money with money is a virtue in the parable. The only way to do this (in both the ancient and modern world) would be to buy and sell things for profit and to lend and charge interest. That interest is involved with the virtuous activity of the servants in the parable is indicated by v. 27 (“you ought to have invested my money with the bankers”).

Charging interest is generally viewed negatively in the Old Testament, but is not condemned outright. There are two general limitations: charging interest of the poor and charging interest of fellow Israelites. The paragraph below summarizes the OT thought concisely:

OT laws seek to protect poor Israelites from economic exploitation ensuing from loans to them at interest (Ex 22:25 [MT 22:24]; Lev 25:35–38). Terms for interest are nešek, literally “bite,” perhaps referring to the interest paid up front to the lender at the beginning of a loan (like “points” on a house loan), and m/tarbît, literally “increase,” which may refer to interest paid subsequently. Another view is that the former is interest on money, the latter on produce (cf. Loewenstamm, 78–80). The Laws of Eshnunna §§18a–21 (c. 1800 b.c. Babylonia) limited interest rates to 20 percent for money and 33.3 percent for grain, exorbitant rates by modern standards that could easily lead to default, forfeiture and enslavement (Neh 5:3–5; 2 Kings 4:1).

Deuteronomy 23:19–20 appears to condemn interest taking altogether (except to foreigners), not just for the poor, a view put into practice by the medieval church. However, in view of Exodus 22:25 (MT 22:24) and Leviticus 25:35–38, which refer explicitly to the poor, the poor may also be in mind in Deuteronomy 23:19–20.

The parable of the talents does not explicitly tells who was charged interest. It’s positive portrayal of making money with money allows readers to presume that those charge were not poor (i.e., they had the ability to pay the interest – see the bankers in v. 27) and that fellow Israelites were not in view. Jesus’ own positive attitude toward upholding the law precludes an endorsement of charging fellow Israelites.

Fourth, the only person condemned in the parable is the one who was too stupid or lazy to invest the master’s money.

Application Thoughts

As I’ve said before in other contexts on this blog, Scripture does not endorse a single culture and believers (by divine design) are no longer living under laws pertaining to theocratic Israel. It may be that our culture — and perhaps even our church culture — could include charging interest. However, laws about the economic relationships between believers (and care for the poor) don’t seem to depend on theocratic structures. That is, they are “person to person” issues of just behavior, stewardship, and care for one’s fellow. If we argue that the State is not in view in OT law elsewhere (as we have), consistency requires the same affirmation here.

In view of all that, we can ask questions like, “Should Christian lenders charge interest of the poor?” This is a much more difficult question than you’d suppose. On one hand, the broad scriptural principle is clear – the poor are not to be abused, whether by charging interest or a host of other modes of potential exploitation. The interpretive problem is not the text. Rather, it’s how to define “poor.” What is the standard for determining whether someone is poor in today’s world. The extreme cases are obvious. I’m talking about people who own property and possess other luxury items (i.e., items not essential for food, clothing, shelter – life essentials). Many in our culture would claim to be poor while possessing many luxury items – a situation that would not have occurred in biblical times, where poverty was much more clearly definable and absolute. Consequently, we have an interpretive disconnect.  One way of defining “poor” is “someone who does not have the ability to pay or repay.” Wisdom would be required on the part of both the lender and borrower (Should I lend? Should I borrow? Can I repay?). One question that seems appropriate to decision making would be something like, “If I don’t charge interest of this person will they be able to repay?”

The same sorts of questions can be asked in regard to fellow believers, and probably more so, given Scripture’s emphasis on special considerations to fellow believers. Note that this issue of interest is not isolated from giving – having all things in common. We’ve already seen that the latter is not a demand placed on believers. The point here is that giving may be an alternative to even asking about lending without interest.

One other consideration is the NT propensity to repeat OT principles or laws. There is no NT statement forbidding the charging of interest between Christians. This may be due to the fact that the Church is not Israelite – it is a “circumcision neutral” entity. But Christians ought to be sensitive to the special status of membership in the body of Christ. Fellow believers are not “just everybody” — they are rendered different by virtue of the common bond of Christian faith. That ought to at least stimulate the consideration of generosity in the direction of sharing resources as the early church did in the book of Acts.

One caveat – and this takes us to the next post: having all things in common and rendering special treatment to fellow believers is not designed by God or apostolic teaching as an endorsement of a refusal to work and provide for oneself and one’s family. That precise situation had to be confronted by Paul in the Thessalonian church (2 Thess 3:6-15). In essence,  Paul’s theology endorses the necessity of work within an early church where “all things were had in common.” We’ll hit that next time.

Postscript

Other Christian scholars whose focus and expertise is economics have commented on this parable elsewhere. I recommend that post to all Naked Bible readers.

 

Technorati Tags: economics, interest, justice, parable, poverty, social, talents

Review of Reza Aslan’s Book About Jesus

By now many of you will have heard about the controversial new book by Reza Aslan on Jesus (Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth). The book has generated controversy since Aslan is a Muslim and inflated his credentials for writing the book on a recent Fox News interview. The book’s poor scholarship (which has nothing to do with the author’s own religion) has been noted by now in several reviews. I thought I’d alert readers to one by New Testament scholar, Anthony LeDunne.

 

Technorati Tags: Aslan, Jesus, review, zealot

Nifty Computer Software for Memorizing Greek and Hebrew Paradigms

I was alerted to this new program on the web today that I’m sure many readers — and MEMRA students — will want to get. I’ve experimented with it and it works like a charm.

The utility generates a wide range of quizzes on all the Greek and Hebrew paradigms students would learn in a full first-year grammar course in either language. It’s easy and keeps track of correct and incorrect responses.

The program isn’t free, but it’s not expensive. After talking to the creator, he’s agreed to a special arrangement whereby readers of this blog can get a 10% discount until the end of August (August 31, 2013). All you need to do for the discount is insert the coupon code when purchasing:

MHEIS1308

 

 

Technorati Tags: forms, grammar, grammatical, greek, hebrew, paradigms, quizzing, software, utility

Why Should You Care About the Septuagint?

Here’s one answer. The link leads to the Oxford University Press website and points to a new book on the LXX. But it also contains a good overview answer to the question that I’d recommend to readers.

Here’s a related answer that I wrote for Bible and Spade in 2010.

Technorati Tags: Christianity, early church, greek, hebrew, Old Testament, septuagint

Mike to Appear on Line of Fire

Just a quick heads up. Several Naked Bible readers have tried to connect me with Dr. Michael Brown over the years. That connection has finally happened. I’ll be on Dr. Brown’s Line of Fire radio show tomorrow from 2:00-2:55 EST. I think the show will be an introduction of me to his audience, but we’re bound to land on some of the topics I’m known for, like the divine council, Paleobabble, and my fiction. Try and tune in!

Technorati Tags: Dr. Michael Brown, Heiser

Working with Hebrew, Greek, and English in the MT and LXX in Logos 5

That’s the title of this post by Mark Hoffman over at the Bible Studies and Technology blog. I thought I’d post a link to it for those who don’t really know what Logos Bible Software does (or can do) – or, perish the thought, who are still using paper tools!

MT = Masoretic Text (traditional Hebrew text of the OT)

LXX = Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT; used most often in NT by NT writers to cite the OT)

Technorati Tags: greek, hebrew, Logos, New Testament, Old Testament, septuagint

Related PostsWhy Sodom and Gomorrah are Not Located at Tall al-Hamman
Biblical Theology, Poverty, and Social Justice: Part 6
New Testament Textual Criticism: Search for Manuscripts Goes On
Naked Bible Podcast Episode 033: Word Studies, Part 2
Biblical Theology, Poverty, and Social Justice, Part 5

Logos Mobile Ed is Born

Registration (pre-pub pricing) for Logos Mobile Education’s first bundle of courses opened today. The first bundle contains 9 courses (“Bible and Doctrine Foundations”). You can read about it here and watch the video. (Truth be told, I’m in it. But it’s still cool).

This is not your run-of-the-mill distance ed program or courseware. It’s unique. I know because I’ve been part of its conception for the past two years. To get caught up on what Mobile Ed is about, here are the three Logos blog posts that have appeared prior to today.

Announcing Logos Mobile Education

Logos Mobile Education: Our Plan for Biblical Content Instruction

Logos Mobile Education: The Digital Library Difference

 

Technorati Tags: Bible, doctrine, Logos, mobile ed

Biblical Theology, Poverty, and Social Justice: Part 10

In this installment of our series, we want to consider a passage in Acts 2 that is often brought into the discussion of a biblical view of social justice: Acts 2:42-47.

42 And they devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and the fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers. 43 And awe came upon every soul, and many wonders and signs were being done through the apostles. 44 And all who believed were together and had all things in common. 45 And they were selling their possessions and belongings and distributing the proceeds to all, as any had need. 46 And day by day, attending the temple together and breaking bread in their homes, they received their food with glad and generous hearts, 47 praising God and having favor with all the people. And the Lord added to their number day by day those who were being saved.

This passage has been used by scholars and lay folks alike to justify socialism, communism, or some sort of politically utopian society that has the veneer of socialism or communism. It isn’t difficult to undermine such hermeneutical conclusions. All it takes is looking at other items recorded in the book of Acts and, of course, certain statements of Jesus. I’ll sketch out the flaws of such thinking as we proceed. I’m guessing readers will be surprised the passage is used at all to justify a political worldview or the use of the Bible to tell the state how to conduct its business.

Definitions

Communism and socialism are related economic-political theories. They can be defined fairly easily. Here are two I like for their succinctness and clarity:

Socialism: “Socialism is an economic concept that advocates public ownership of all resources. The production and distribution of resources with a society are then controlled by members of that society collectively or by the government that represents that society. Goods are produced and distributed based on need rather than on market forces such as profitability, price and consumers’ purchasing power. In a socialist economy, workers contribute to society based on their ability and receive according to their needs, rather than being paid wages and using that money to purchase what they want. Private possessions are limited to personal-use items such as clothes, and there is no need or ability for individuals to accumulate wealth, so there is equality among the people.”1

Communism: “Socialism that abolishes private ownership and seeks to create a classless society.”2 Note the wording. Communism (at least as we know it in practice in the 20th-21st centuries) seeks the abolition of private property. The idea of a classless society, of course, is nonsense, both in theory and practice, since you need leadership to enforce the rules or ideas (since this abstract will need coercion and enforcement). As soon as people who mutually agreed (again in theory) to have a classless society do or say something perceived as violating the ideal, they must be dealt with.

Some Preliminary Observations

Does Acts 2:42-47 teach either of these economic-political theories? Making the equation reflect shallow thinking about the biblical material. In fact, arguing the equation is coherent requires a surface-level approach to the relevant texts and a sloppy hermeneutic.

The sentiment behind socialism and communism in pure form (“from each, according to his ability, to each according to his need”) is reflected in Acts 2:42-47 and other passages (Acts 11:29). However, none of these passages empower the state to coerce individuals into such actions, nor do they call for the state to mime the Church. To do so would contradict the teaching of Jesus. Socialism and communism therefore take an idea consistent with individual mercy and righteousness and use it to hold political power over people and nurture economic dependence on the power-holding State. It was Jesus who called for the separation of the Church and State, who spoke of the kingdom of heaven as distinct from the State (Matt 22:21). The part does not equate to the whole.

Put another way, if the apostles were transported to the 20th century and asked to read books on socialist theory, or socialist laws, or the Communist Manifesto would they see themselves? I would submit the answer is no.3 Why?

Let’s start with what we already know from our excursions into a biblical theology of social justice. Without rehearsing all the details, here are the basics:

1. The Bible neither forbids nor condemns private property.

2. The Bible neither forbids nor condemns private possessions.

3. The Bible neither forbids nor condemns running a private business (entrepreneurship). Consequently, profit is neither forbidden nor condemned.

4. Lending and borrowing (with interest, depending on Jewish or Gentile status) were also not forbidden or condemned in principle. Excess in these respects is condemned, and borrowing receives attention in wisdom literature to prompt wise choices in that regard (such as ability to repay and the consequences of failure in that regard).

5. While Scripture does condemn the economic abuse of the poor, there is no expectation in the Bible that the state is responsible for providing a citizen’s livelihood.

6. Old Testament laws for the care of the poor are aimed at the individual, not the state. That is, the expectation is that Israelites would care for the poor by obeying God’s laws. There was no police force or Israelite IRS to enforce these laws. When abuses happened, Israelite elders or officials (after the monarchy) could punish individuals and call for restitution. But this is not socialism or communism for the reasons that follow.

7. The Bible contains no laws that call for a classless society. In fact, biblical law presumes social classes. The same can be said of the teachings of Jesus. Jesus presumes social classes and never calls for their abolition. What he calls for is righteousness among members of social classes (i.e., righteous relationships). The words of the apostles in the epistolary literature is entirely consistent with this. Paul and others benefit from the benevolence of wealthy individuals (e.g., Luke 23:50; Acts 17:12) and business owners (e.g., Acts 16:14) and never link their conversion or walk with God to surrender of all their possessions or their business. The very idea of giving to the poor according to one’s ability (Acts 11:29) requires differing financial statuses.

8. The New Testament does not include the erection of a new theocracy as part of the mission of the Church. There is no call for the Church to be the State, or the State to be the Church. They are separate entities in the teaching of Jesus. (And history has yet to provide a good outcome when two are married).

Acts 2:42-47 in Context

Acts 2:45 plainly says the members of the fledgling apostolic church in Jerusalem “were selling their possessions and belongings and distributing the proceeds to all.” The same thought is expressed in Acts 4:32-37:

32 Now the full number of those who believed were of one heart and soul, and no one said that any of the things that belonged to him was his own, but they had everything in common. 33 And with great power the apostles were giving their testimony to the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, and great grace was upon them all. 34 There was not a needy person among them, for as many as were owners of lands or houses sold them and brought the proceeds of what was sold 35 and laid it at the apostles’ feet, and it was distributed to each as any had need. 36 Thus Joseph, who was also called by the apostles Barnabas (which means son of encouragement), a Levite, a native of Cyprus, 37 sold a field that belonged to him and brought the money and laid it at the apostles’ feet.

Do these passages teach us that the rejection of private property was part of apostolic teaching? Is their message telegraphing an implicit desire that a political state authority should control economic activity to make sure everyone was at the same economic level and that there were no socio-economic classes (socialism and communism)?

In a word, no — at least if we care to take a look at the very next chapter, Acts 5.

Acts 5 gives us a window into the activity of selling property for the “economic redistribution” mentioned in Acts 2 and 4. Acts 5 chronicles the infamous episode involving Ananias and Sapphira:

1 But a man named Ananias, with his wife Sapphira, sold a piece of property, 2 and with his wife’s knowledge he kept back for himself some of the proceeds and brought only a part of it and laid it at the apostles’ feet. 3 But Peter said, “Ananias, why has Satan filled your heart to lie to the Holy Spirit and to keep back for yourself part of the proceeds of the land? 4 While it remained unsold, did it not remain your own? And after it was sold, was it not at your disposal? Why is it that you have contrived this deed in your heart? You have not lied to men but to God.” 5 When Ananias heard these words, he fell down and breathed his last. And great fear came upon all who heard of it.

The same fate that befell Ananias came upon his wife Sapphira shortly afterward (Acts 5:7-11).

What can we learn from this passage with regard to the issue under discussion? Peter’s words in Acts 5:4 are noteworthy: “While it remained unsold, did it not remain your own? And after it was sold, was it not at your disposal?” Peter did not rebuke Ananias for owning property. Once the property was sold, Ananias was under no obligation to give it all to the church — and Peter’s words could be read to the effect that he wasn’t under any obligation to give any of it to the church. The giving of wealth was voluntary, not under coercion of either apostolic authority or an overlord State. The evil in the passage was not private ownership, selling (presumably at a profit to boot), what the market could bear (a capitalist principle), or retaining personal wealth. Rather, the evil was lying about what was done with the money for the purpose of pride and spiritual grandstanding.

The context of the early church in general is informative as well. Here are some observations:

1. The activity described in the Acts of “having all things in common” is mentioned only in Acts 2 and 4. The phrase never occurs of any other NT church founded by Paul or any other apostle. This suggests that there was something unique about the situation in the original Jerusalem church that (presumably) wasn’t transmitted as binding custom to other NT churches. This omission is strange if the example of Acts was binding for all churches (much less the political State).

2. Many NT scholars who discuss the phrase suggest that it very likely refers to the familiar Hellenistic / Greco-Roman notion that “friends share what friends have.” Well-known NT scholar C. K. Barrett puts it this way:

“[Luke may] have thought it likely that the Christians would adopt one of the most admired practices of antiquity, and have observed it more fully and on a wider scale than their gentile contemporaries and predecessors. That friends share all things is one of the most widely quoted maxims in ancient literature. It is impossible to cite all the passages available. . . .”4

3. According to the rest of the NT, the “shared wealth” of the Jerusalem church did not elevate its economic condition. While we can safely assume those believers in extreme poverty were helped, this church was notoriously poor. Its poverty was the reason that Paul took to collecting money on his missionary trips from the start-up churches birthed through his ministry. The joy of the Jerusalem church wasn’t in the fact that they were all at the same (very low) economic level, but in each other and in Christ. That is, the goal of the giving was unity and community; it was not to make an economic or political statement.

5. The fact that the NT accounts of this situation focus on *believers* and not all people (read Acts 2 and 4 again) should inform us clearly that what’s going on is not meant to be transferred to the political State or statecraft. If that were the case, then the State would have to insist everyone was a “believer.” that is, there would have to be a State religion to which everyone who sought or obtained economic assistance was a member. It might just be me, but I think we all know how such things turned out in the history of western civilization.

6. While the rest of the NT (and earliest church tradition and history) is filled with accounts of the apostles founding churches in response to the Great Commission, there is no record that they formed a political entity, spread an economic theory, or founded a political party.

The conclusion I draw from this admittedly cursory set of observations is that the notion that Acts 2 justifies a modern political theory like socialism or communism is utterly bogus and hermeneutically flawed.  The accounts of the early Church are devoid of theoretical politics or any eye to State formation or the exercise of State power. The kingdom of God was simply conceived as not being of this world.

 

See What is Socialism. ↩
See What is Communism. ↩
This is not to say they’d see themselves in Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, either. ↩
Barrett, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, 168. And for all you copy editors out there, yes, I know this is not a correct or complete bibliographic citation of this ICC volume. It’s just that I have the dumbest WordPress plugin for footnotes on the planet, as it cannot abide things like parentheses in citations. I’ll be looking for another plug in as soon as I publish this post. ↩

Technorati Tags: Acts, Bible, common, communism, Jesus, New Testament, political, poverty, social justice, socialism, wealth