Marc Liebman's Blog, page 20

Jefferson’s National Defense Conundrum

By 1801, President Jefferson had a foreign policy problem in which his political positions and beliefs were in direct conflict with reality. The causes of Jefferson’s national security conundrum were both internal and external. On one hand, Jefferson didn’t want the U.S. to have a standing army and Navy. On the other, world events required it.

What began as the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792 had now morphed into the Napoleonic Wars. England had become the United Kingdom of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales in 1801 and was locked in a battle for survival with France. The coalitions on both sides changed, almost yearly and three presidents – Washington, Adams and now Jefferson – had doggedly remained neutral.

For Jefferson, an avowed Francophile, he wanted the U.S. to join the French but understood doing so was political suicide given that over 70% of U.S. international trade was with the U.K. Now that the Quasi War with France was officially over with the Convention of 1800, he severely reduced the funds allocated to the Navy that Adams had created. What was left was a coastal defense force and three frigates. The remainder of the ships were placed in what the Royal Navy calls “in ordinary.” Today, we would use the term mothballed.

His decision not to have a standing army and navy left the U.S. almost defenseless. Overseas, the Barbary Pirates were increasing their demands for tribute while still capturing U.S. merchant ships. Whatever agreements Adams’ and then later Jefferson’s emissaries had worked out were violated. Since international trade was a mainstay of the growing U.S. economy, Jefferson was under pressure to “do something.”

The Barbary Pirates knew better than to capture British or French ships. Both countries had large fleets in the Mediterranean that could quickly react. The U.S. had no such capability.

Jefferson and his Secretary of the Navy – Robert Smith – were faced with executing an expeditionary warfare campaign in the Mediterranean. This meant a significant expansion in the size of the U.S. Neither the Navy, nor the Army, had any experience this type of warfare which today, we would call power projection.

Tripoli is 4,120 nautical miles from Philadelphia. By square rigged ship averaging five knots over the bottom, it is 34.3 days away. To support any campaign against the Barbary Pirates, the U.S. needed bases in the Mediterranean.

Jefferson turned to the Kingdom of Sicily. By 1801, Napoleon had conquered much of the Italian peninsula, including the other “half” of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily. This forced the British to invade Sicily to keep it from falling into the hands of the French. The British allowed the Sicilians to help the United States by allowing its ships to resupply and refit in its ports.

We had another unlikely ally – Sweden – who sent three frigates to support the growing U.S. force in the region. It took two years of skirmishes, bombardments, the loss of the U.S.S. Philadelphia which was burned in Tripoli harbor after it was captured and negotiations before the Barbary Pirates agreed to stop taking U.S. ships.

Shortly after the treaty was signed that ended the First Barbary War, Jefferson again reduced the funding for the U.S. Navy. Unfortunately, this was not the end of the Barbary Pirates story that ends with the Second Barbary Pirates War in 1815. Stay tuned.

Painting is of the U.S.S. Philadelphia aground in Tripoli’s harbor by an unknown artist.

 

 

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The Legacy of the Sedition and Alien Acts of 1798

The election of 1796 between Jefferson and Adams was hotly contested. Led by Thomas Jefferson, the Democratic-Republicans tried to paint the Federalists as monarchists who wanted to put John Adams on a throne. The Federalists said the Democratic-Republics were anarchists, anti-commerce and wanted to join the war raging in Europe on the side of France.

Before the American Civil War, the candidate that won the most electoral votes became president and the one who came in second became the vice president. Adams had one more electoral vote than Jefferson so he became the president and Jefferson the vice president.

When Adams and Jefferson were sworn in, they were bitter political enemies. Immediately after the inauguration, Jefferson and his fellow Democratic-Republicans launched attacks on Adams and the Federalists who controlled the Senate and the House. Many of the scathing articles in the press had no basis in fact and were published by the press that favored the Democratic-Republicans.

Fed up with the false attacks, the Federalist rammed through Congress four bills known as the Sedition and Alien Acts of 1798. Adams signed them into law at a time when the U.S. fighting France in the Quasi War that began on July 7th, 1798 and ended on September 30th, 1800.

In a nutshell, the four laws were the Naturalization Act, the Alien Enemies Act, the Alien Friends Act and the Sedition Act. The major point of the Naturalization Act was to increase time one needed to be in the U.S. from five to 14 years.

Taken together the Alien Friends and the Alien Enemies Acts were designed to give the President the power to “imprison and deport those dangerous or hostile to the United States” (Alien Friends). The Alien Enemies Act gave the president power to arrest any male over the age of 14 from a hostile nation if suspected of spying, treason, or other activities detrimental the U.S.

Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans cried foul, claiming that these laws were targeted at the flood of immigrants coming into the U.S., most of whom voted for their candidates. The Federalists responded by saying these laws are needed in the interests of national security.

The Sedition Act that caused the most controversy. Almost immediately, Federalist prosecutors began suing papers (all of whom favored the Democratic-Republicans) that printed the false stories claiming their articles that made false statements were seditious, i.e. harmful to the Federal government.

The papers’ defense was that the prosecutions under the Sedition Act were a violation of the First Amendment. Their cases were based on the statement. The government won most of the cases it took to court.

Nonetheless, the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 were very unpopular. History tells us that the public’s reaction to the four bills helped Jefferson beat Adams in the election of 1800.

While the Sedition Act expired in 1800 and the Alien Friends Acts in 1801, the Naturalization Act and the Alien Enemies Acts had no termination date. Today, the Alien Enemies Act lives on as Chapter 3, Sections 21-24 of Title 50 of the United States Code.

President Wilson used the power in the Sedition Act to arrest and deport aliens who activities were allied with Germany. President Roosevelt used the authority after the bombing of Pearl Harbor to issue presidential proclamations authorizing the Federal government to apprehend, restrain, secure, and remove German (#2526), Italian (#2527), and Japanese non-citizens (#2525).

FDR, again, citing the power in the Sedition Act, issued Executive Order 9066 which authorized the U.S. Government to forcibly remove U.S. citizens of Japanese descent from their homes and move them into internment camps. Ultimately, ~110,000 were relocated.

On April 10th, 1946, President Truman issued proclamation #2685 which revised the language to allow the Federal government to “remove alien enemies in the interest of public safety.” The constitutionality of the Sedition Act as well as Truman’s changes was upheld in the 1948 U.S. Supreme Court decision of Ludecke vs. Watkins.

President Donald Trump used the power from the Sedition Act to ban Muslims from seven countries from entering the country unless their backgrounds could be properly vetted. It too was challenged in court and the powers in the Sedition Act of 1798 were upheld 220 years later when the U.S. Supreme Court upheld Trump’s authority in its 2018 (U.S. vs. Hawaii) decision.

Image is a poster in San Franciso right after Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 courtesy of the U.S. Department of the Interior.

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Origins of the Sedition Act of 1798

Its 1798 and a very difficult time in the United States. In Europe, France was at war with almost every major power who wanted to restore the Bourbons to their throne.

In the Caribbean, the U.S was at war with the French which had authorized its Navy and holders of French government letters of marque to seize American ships. Known as the Quasi-War, (See June 20, 2022 post – The Undeclared War Against the French – https://marcliebman.com/the-undeclared-war-against-france/), this wasn’t the first nor the last undeclared or “limited” war in which the United States would become involved. Unfortunately, for those being shot at, there is no such thing as a “limited” war.

Back home, the Democratic-Republicans were at “war” with the Federalists over pretty much every major issue. The Federalists controlled both houses and the presidency. What we would call hot button issues today were immigration, taxation, size of the military, size and shape of Congressional districts, and the list goes on.

The war in Europe was already causing thousands to emigrate to the U.S. The population was growing by leaps and bounds (see December 12th post – Origins of the U.S. Census – https://marcliebman.com/the-origin-of-the-u-s-census/ and both sides of the aisle were concerned for different reasons.

The Federalists wanted to create a process that provided an orderly path to citizenship. They did not want to limit the number or where the immigrants came from. Already, the Naturalization Act of 1790 supported by both parties established a two-year residency requirement that was extended in 1795 to five years. Both acts required vetting to ensure the potential citizen was “of good character.” If this could be verified in the eyes of a “court,” the person was allowed to swear allegiance to the United States and become a citizen.

The Democratic Republicans saw the flood of immigrants as potential voters and Federalists saw them as potential agents of a foreign government. Note that the Federalists were not trying to stop immigration, but, as we would say today, “get a handle on it.” They wanted to know who was coming into the country.

By 1798, the country suffered through two major foreign policy scandals – “L’Affaire Genet” (see 11/28/21 blog post – Le Affaire Genêt and Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation – https://marcliebman.com/laffaire-genet-and-the-washingtons-1793-neutrality-proclamation/ ) in 1783 and L’Affaire de XYZ (see 7/26/20 blog post L’Affaire de XYZ – https://marcliebman.com/laffaire-de-xyz/ ) in 1787.

Jefferson was involved up to his neck in both these scandals that raised very real fears that the France was actively attempting to get the United States to join their side (they were!).

Understand that leaders of both sides had lived through the American Revolution and before that, censorship and other controls on society imposed by the British Parliament. Hence, the First Amendment reads Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridge the freedom of speech; or the press; or the right of the people to peaceably assemble; or petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Jefferson, Madison, and the other leaders of the Democratic-Republicans encouraged their contacts in the media to write articles critical of the Adams administration. This was then, and is now, the right of any individual. These two men saw a path to the presidency by taking advantage of the first amendment.

However, what transpired blurred the line between journalism – factual reporting the who, what, where and when – became blurred with editorial opinion. Suddenly Adams and Federalists were faced with an onslaught of articles critical of the administration that were posited by newspapers to be true. For the most part, they were not and the Adams administration felt that the republic and the authority of the Federal government was threatened.

Predictably, the Federalists reacted and John Adams, with majorities in the House and Senate, pushed a series of laws known as the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. Among other things, the laws increased the time required for citizenship to 14 years. The sedition laws empowered the Federal government to sue anyone writing articles critical of the government. Ultimately, the unpopularity of these laws led to Adams defeat by Jefferson in the hotly contested election in 1800.

The legacy of these laws began the debate on about what was protected by the First Amendment and what was not. More on these acts in coming posts.

Image is the headline on a Boston paper, courtesy of the Library of Congress.

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Divisive Issues Are Not New to U.S. Politics

Strong political differences have existed in the United States since before the American Revolution. As the desire to be independent from England gained momentum, two factions emerged. Loyalists wanted to remain English citizens and Patriots wanted independence. The division split families as well as the Thirteen Colonies.

Property rights of Loyalists who left with the British Army or stayed in the new United States were a major bone of contention during negotiations with the British. Differences between Loyalists and Patriots didn’t end with independence. The emotions (and labels) lasted well into the early 19th Century. Some of the lawsuits were not settled until all concerned had been in their graves for decades.

The U.S. had been independent for less than nine years when the French Revolution erupted. Our ambassador to France – Thomas Jefferson – was actively involved early on when he allowed his official residence to be used as a meeting place for those plotting the revolt.

Later, Jefferson helped Lafayette and his fellow revolutionaries write documents to present to King Louis XVI and the French Chamber of Deputies in the hopes of helping France transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one. Jefferson’s support for the French Revolution – but not the beheadings – continued into his time as the first Secretary of State under George Washington and later as John Adams’ Vice President.

So let’s look at the times. By 1792, the first of what the Europeans call the French Revolutionary Wars begins when France attacks those countries who want to put Louis XVI back on his throne.

On the west side of the Atlantic, President Washington wants no part of a foreign war. About 80% of U.S. trade is with England and it is growing exponentially, year on year. By the turn of the century, it had increased 300% over what it was in 1783!

The Jay Treaty is billed as an attempt to “clean up” some the issues that arose from the 1783 Treaty of Paris. Proposed by Hamilton, it was bitterly opposed by Jefferson, the treaty did achieve several aims. (see 6/21/2020 Blog Post –The Jay Treaty and Our First Use of Arbitration in an International Dispute – https://marcliebman.com/the-jay-treaty-and-our-first-use-of-arbitration-in-an-international-dispute/). Unfortunately, France took a dim view of the agreement because they believed it violated the 1778 Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. It didn’t and the French began violating the treaty almost before the ink was dry. (See 12/6/2020 Blog Post French Diplomatic Duplicity During the American Revolution –https://marcliebman.com/?s=French+Diplomatic+Duplicity ). Nonetheless, the Jay treaty became one of the issues that led to the 1798 – 1800 Quasi War between France and the U.S.

Besides the conflict between France and the U.S. and the fallout from the Jay Treaty, President Washington was dealing with several tricky domestic issues. One was the orderly transition of power to his successor. This would be the first time that the theories outlined in the Constitution would be put into practice.

Two, two political parties were emerging. One was the Federalists led by John Adams and Alexander Hamilton and the other, led by Jefferson and Madison were the Democratic-Republicans. They bickered over almost everything. One such hot button issue wrapped around the Tenth Amendment in which essentially give all rights not given to the new central government by the Constitution are “reserved” for the states. (See 4/3/22 Blog Post – The Mighty Ninth and Tenth – https://marcliebman.com/the-mighty-ninth-and-tenth/).

Three, the flood of immigrants coming from war torn Europe and those seeking a better life had begun. It became a tidal wave in the late 1890s and continues today.

There were no TV stations, cable news or talk radio in the 18th Century, and predictably, the newspapers were virulently partisan.

Two quotes make my point. A writer in a paper that supported the Federalists wrote “Many a private person might make a great President; but will there ever be a President who will make so great a man as Washington?”

The Democratic-Republican press had a different view – “If ever a nation was debauched by a man, the American nation has been debauched by Washington… Let the history of the federal government instruct mankind, that the mask of patriotism may be worn to conceal the foulest designs against the liberties of the people.”

This is more proof that nothing in U.S. politics is new. Times, individuals, cultures, inventions all change the way we live, but they do not change human nature.

FYI, in future posts, we’ll examine how the rights of states, immigration and civil liberties were dealt with in more detail.

Image is the top section of the Wednesday, September 9th, 1789 edition of Gazette of the United States.

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When Greed Interferes With One’s Duty

There’s no doubt that the privateers and the underfunded Continental Navy really hurt the English war effort. Between 10 and 15% of the British merchant fleet along with 15,000 merchant seamen were captured by the Continental Navy and privates. The loss of these ships made it much more difficult for the Royal Navy and Royal Merchant Marine to bring reinforcements and supplies to British garrisons throughout the world.

War at sea during the American Revolution, as it is today, is a dangerous business. One tactic governments increased the crew member pay was by allowing prize money to be distributed amongst the crew. Note that John Paul Jones voluntarily reduced his captains’ and added it amount to increase the share of prize money given to the “enlisted” men as a recruiting tool. If you are interested in the more details about the formulas, go to https://marcliebman.com/jaco-jacinto-age-of-sail-series/ and page down to the bottom and you’ll see a piece on prize money and the various formulas.

Cargo and ships captured by warships or privateers can be auctioned in what is known as an “admiralty” court. The court can be in either a neutral country or the privateer’s or man-of-war’s homeland. Once the sale is completed, the proceeds of the sale, less the commission taken by the court, go to the consortium which has the option of dividing a portion amongst the crew.

In some cases, the sale happens quickly, in others it could take months or years. Worse, if a man dies either from age, disease, or wounds, rarely was his share given to his family. It just went into the pool for his category which was divided by the number or men. Generational money could be earned through prize money, particularly if one was the ship’s captain or one of its officers.

It is difficult to overstate the importance of prize money during this time. To read more about impact of the prize money and why there were so many privateers, read my 3/17/2019 post Prize Money – War, Patriotism and Instant Wealth – https://marcliebman.com/prize-money-war-patriotism-and-instant-wealth/ and one written a few weeks later on 5/26/19 titled – Piracy – The Midwife to the Rebirth of the U.S. Navy – https://marcliebman.com/piracy-the-midwife-to-the-rebirth-of-the-u-s-navy/ .

Prize money also brought out the worst in men. In historian James Bloom’s April 20th, 2022, piece in his series “Today in Naval History”, he tells the story where greed got in the way of doing what was right for the crew.

What happened was that Warren, 32 guns, sailing with the frigate Queen of France, 28 guns and the sloop-of-war Ranger, 18 guns (John Paul Jones’ former command) attacked H.M.S. Jason, 20 guns; H.M.S. Maria; 16 guns; and British privateer Hibernia, 8 guns. The Royal Navy ships were escorting a convoy of nine ships heading to Savannah, GA to reinforce resupply its garrison. On board the British ships were 21 British Army officers and enough weapons and ammunition and other supplies to equip a regiment of cavalry.

Captain Hopkins, CO decided to take the ships to Boston. Both Hopkins and Captain Joseph Olney, CO of Queen of France knew they had a windfall. Both bought shares of the crew at a very substantial discount. Their pitch was was it would take months or years for the crew to be paid their share.

Ignoring the Navy Board’s instruction to anchor in the harbor, both Warren and Queen of France tied up to piers. When the crews realized that the sale would happen quickly and that they were cheated out of a substantial sum of money, most deserted and neither Warren nor Queen of France could put to sea. The Marine Committee of the Continental Congress relieved both captains stating that Hopkins and Olney “were more attached to their own interest and emoluments than to the honor and benefit of the United States.”

Image is model of the U.S.S. Ranger, 18 guns courtesy of NavSource.org.

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Marines First Raid

Until the French Army arrived in 1780 the American Revolution, the Continental Army and Navy were always short of powder and musket balls. The British would never have taken Breed’s Hill (a.k.a. to history as Bunker Hill) if the Continentals hadn’t run out of powder.

The Continental Navy was created on October 13th, 1775, and the Marine Corps on November 10th, 1775. Its first mission, once the navy had enough ships to form a small squadron, was to seize the Royal Navy’s store of powder and shot in Nassau on New Providence Island in the Bahamas.

When Commodore Esek Hopkins was given his orders in December 1775, the Royal Navy had 355 rated ships of 20 guns or more. His Continental Navy squadron had two small frigates Alfred and Columbus, each with twenty 9-pounders and ten 6-pounders; two brigs – Cabot, and Andrea Doria each with fourteen 6-pounders; and the sloop Providence with twelve 4-pounders. Hopkin’s squadron sailed from Philadelphia with 234 men in the newly formed United States Marine Corps in detachments on his five ships.

After being frozen in the ice of Delaware Bay for a month, Hopkins’ squadron arrived on March 1st and anchored off Abaco Cay. Waiting for him was the two masted schooner Wasp armed with eight 2-pounders; the sloops Hornet with ten 4-pounders and Fly with six 6-pounders who had captured two sloops owned by Loyalists. Every ship in Hopkins force was converted merchantmen, not purpose-built warships.

There were two forts guarding the town of Nassau on Grand Bahama Island – Fort Montagu and Fort Nassau – and the intelligence Hopkins had received before he left was that most of the powder was stored in the magazine at Fort Nassau.

The landing force was transferred to the two sloops and escorted by Providence, they sailed into the harbor with the hope of surprising the British and seizing the two forts. The cannons at Fort Montagu opened fire and the landing force withdrew.

John Paul Jones, the first lieutenant (or executive officer) on Hopkins’ flagship Alfred strongly pushed blockading the harbor, but Hopkins refused. Instead, the landing was made the next morning about a mile from the harbor under the command of Captain Nicholas.

Hopkins came ashore once the beachhead was secured. As the Marines, augmented by about 50 sailors approached the town, they were met by a British Army lieutenant. Hopkins demanded the British surrender, the officer asked for 24 hours which Hopkins accepted.

During the night, the British loaded 150 of the 200 casks of powder in Forts Nassau and Montagu onto Mississippi Packet and H.M.S. St. John. Around 2 a.m., the ships slipped out of the harbor headed for the British base in St. Augustine Florida. Hopkins refusal to follow Jones suggestion to blockade Nassau harbor cost the Continentals their most desired prize.

The next day, the British surrendered the town of Nassau. While the raid did capture 90 cannon, 15 mortars and some powder and shot, it was not nearly the quantity as had been hoped. Nonetheless, the operation was considered a success and was the first landing by U.S. Marines on foreign soil.

Zveg’s 1973 painting titled Raid on New Providence, 1776, courtesy of the U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command.

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The Shores of Tripoli

The Marine Corps hymn starts with the words “From the halls of Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli…” and Tripoli refers to the fight against the Barbary Pirates in 1803 – 1805. Specifically the exploits of Marine First Lieutenant Presley O’Bannon.

Fed up with the ever-increasing demands for tribute from the Barbary Pirates, President Jefferson sent almost the entire U.S. Navy to teach the pirates a lesson. Their mission – bring home as many of the U.S. merchant seaman as possible and convince by force, if necessary, the pirates to stop seizing U.S. ships.

When confronted by U.S. Navy warships, the pirates retreated into harbors defended by cannon mounted in stone forts. Solid iron shot is not very effective these types of fortifications and the wooden ships were vulnerable to return fire, particularly “hot shot.”

By heating an iron ball until it is red hot, the heated cannon balls are rammed down the barrel and fired. When the hot cannon ball hits the dry timbers wooden ship, it often starts a fire on a vessel packed with people, powder, tarred ropes, canvas sails and other highly combustible materials.

Yusef Karamanli, in Tripoli had taken his throne by killing one of his brothers. Jefferson authorized William Eaton, the U.S. consul to Tripoli to recruit a group of mercenaries to take Tripoli, restore Hamet Karamanli – Yusef’s surviving brother – to the throne, and negotiate a peace treaty. The promise of gold and plunder was a powerful motivator and Hamet helped Eaton and O’Bannon recruit a motley mix of ~200 Greeks (mostly Christians) and ~300 Turks and Arabs (mostly Muslims).

O’Bannon, Eaton and eight U.S. Marines from the U.S.S. Argus set out with their mercenaries from Alexandria on March 8th, 1803. Destination – Derna – 521 miles away.

Eaton declared himself to be a general even though he served as a sergeant in the Continental Army and then as a Captain in the Legion of the United States (see post 3/22/20 – The Legion of the United States – https://marcliebman.com/the-legion-of-the-united-states/ ). He had resigned from the legion in 1799 to take the post in Tripoli.

With camels as pack animals, the column followed the coast reaching the port of Bomba on April 17th, 1805. Along the way, Eaton and O’Bannon put down a mutiny, deal with truculent soldiers as well as dwindling supplies. For the last few days, each man was subsisting on a bowl of rice and two biscuits.

Resupplied by Argus, they set out for Derna on April 21st and arrived on April 25th, 51 days after leaving Alexandria. Eaton wrote to the Bey of Derna, asking for safe passage for his army so they could proceed on to Tripoli. Mustafa Bey, the governor of Derna, wrote back, “My head or yours.”

Eaton and O’Bannon had no choice but to attack Derna. On April 27th, O’Bannon, and the Marines and the Greeks attacked from the east and Hamet and the Arabs moved around to attack the city from the west.

Under heavy musket fire, the Greek mercenaries hesitated. Believing there was only one way to end this, O’Bannon and his Marines led a bayonet charge that captured the fort. Hamet managed to capture the rest of the city and set himself up in the governor’s residence.

On May 13th, Yusef arrived with a small army and almost drove Hamet’s men out of the city. That is, until O’Bannon, his Marines, and the Greeks counterattacked, keeping Derna in the possession of the Americans and their mercenaries.

Yusef retreated and Eaton and O’Bannon were about to march on Tripoli when he was informed that the U.S. and Yusef’s representatives had signed a peace treaty. Eaton was ordered to return to Egypt with Hamet Karamanli.

When O’Bannon raised his country’s flag on the parapet of Derna’s fort, it was the first time in U.S. history that the Stars and Stripes flew over an enemy position on the eastern side of the Atlantic. This historical footnote pales in comparison to O’Bannon’s courage and leadership that motivated the Greek mercenaries to follow him on the bayonet charge against a superior enemy force. What is also significant is that O’Bannon’s men suffered only 14 casualties.

Painting is called O’Bannon at Derna by COL Charles Waterhouse, USMC (retired).

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First American Women in Combat

In 1994, President Clinton rescinded the rule that prevented women from serving in combat support roles. This change allowed women to fly combat aircraft and serve on ships such as aircraft carriers, destroyers, and cruisers. Submarines and special forces were still off limits to women until 2013 when Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta eliminated this restriction. Women could now serve in direct ground combat roles, such as infantry and armor and yes, submarines. They were also allowed to qualify for the SEALs and Green Berets.

While this was an important change, it wasn’t the first time American women served in “direct combat roles.” During the American Revolution, many women served in line infantry and artillery units. The exact number of women is unknown, but there is enough of a historical record to suggest there more than just a few.

To do so, they had to disguise themselves as men because the “norms” of the day held that woman were not fit for combat. Those that enlisted were more afraid of being found out if they were wounded or became sick than of being killed.

Such is the case of Deborah Sampson. She enlisted in the 4th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment in 1782 as Robert Shurtliff. In a skirmish north of New York City, Shurtliff/Sampson was hit in the thigh by two musket balls. A third grazed her head. Taken to a field hospital, she was afraid she would be “found out” so she limped out. That evening, Sampson used a pen knife to extract one ball and sewed up her thigh with a needle and thread. She could not get the other ball out and Sampson’s leg never fully healed.

A few months later, she became sick and the doctor who treated her promised to never reveal her identity. After the war Deborah Sampson received an honorable discharge signed by none other than Henry Knox, the future Secretary of War. After the war, she bore three children before dying in 1827.

Many have heard the story of Molly Pitcher. Most historians believe the woman in the center of the story is Mary Ludwig, the wife of William Hays, who was a member of the 4th Pennsylvania Artillery. They also agree the Molly Pitcher story may be a composite of several other women in addition to Mary Ludwig Hays

Mary Ludwig Hays suffered through the 1777-1778 winter at Valley Forge where she was a camp follower. There she helped nurse sick soldiers. At the Battle of Monmouth which took place in hot, humid weather in June 1778, Molly Pitcher was carrying buckets of water to men of the 4th Artillery when she noticed a gun not being fired. She joined the crew and helped get the cannon back in action.

In his memoir of the American Revolution, Jacob Plumb Martin who was at the Battle of Monmouth and saw the battery firing noted that a woman helped serve a gun by loading and ramming powder cartridges and cannon balls into the barrel. In his memoir, Martin stated that a British cannon ball passed between her legs carrying away the lower half of her petticoat. Unfazed, the woman continued serving the gun. Martin made no mention of her husband being wounded or of her carrying buckets of water. Mary Ludwig passed away in 1832.

Deborah Sampson and Mary Ludwig are just two of many women who served in direct combat roles in the Continental Army. They began the proud tradition of women in the U.S. military. Today, they are fighter and helicopter pilots, infantrywomen, combat medics and much more. It just took us awhile to get them back on the front lines.

Image is Currier and Ives painting, Molly Pitcher, Heroine of Monmouth, courtesy of the Library of Congress.

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Jefferson’s Piracy Problem

Not long after Thomas Jefferson was sworn into office on March 4th, 1801, he was faced with a vexing foreign policy problem. He, along with his party – the Democratic-Republicans had campaigned against the U.S. government maintaining a standing army and navy. With the Quasi War over and a peace treaty with France signed in 1800, Jefferson ordered that the budget for the Army and Navy be cut back.

Jefferson wanted to replace the frigates that had been built under the Adams administration with a fleet of small, lightly armed ships to patrol the U.S. coast. This would allow Jefferson to claim his administration “had a navy” albeit one that was little more than a coastal constabulary.

Unfortunately for Jefferson, his utopian view of an agrarian, non-industrial U.S. society that didn’t need commercial relationships with countries outside North America flew in the face of reality. The major powers had been almost continuously engaged in a war in Europe, Africa, and India since 1792.

In the Mediterranean, the pirates, a.k.a. Barbary Pirates based in modern Algeria, Libya, and Tunisia, knew better than to take French or British flagged merchant ships. Those of smaller nations, particularly those from a country without a strong, sea going navy were fair game.

To be fair to Jefferson, the Washington and Adams Administrations had been paying tribute to the Bey’s who ran these small nation states. Jefferson had seen the greed first-hand when John Jay and he negotiated a treaty in 1796 with the Bey of Algiers to pay $642,500. To make the payment, the U.S. government had to borrow the money!

For the Democratic-Republicans, this was a watershed moment. They didn’t want to have the Federal government borrow money or impose taxes to fund an Army or Navy. The treaty and its payment forced the government take on debt to pay tribute to a foreign power.

The reason that the Washington and Adams administrations agreed to paying the tribute was that U.S. did not have a standing army or Navy. In 1794, Adams pushed through Congress the Navy Act against strong opposition from Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans. Adams had no choice. Without a strong, sea going navy to protect U.S. merchant ships, tribute was the only option.

In 1801, the Bey of Tripoli had canceled the 1796 treaty and declared war on the U.S. and began seizing U.S. merchant ships. He demanded millions to stop and Jefferson refused to pay. He believed that now was the time to use military force.

From a foreign policy perspective, Jefferson’s choices were limited. He couldn’t approach England or France or their allies for help because they were at each other’s throats. Luckily, he still had the navy created under the Adams administration which was sent to the Mediterranean. (See March 17, 2019, post – Piracy, the Midwife of the U.S. Navy – https://marcliebman.com/piracy-the-midwi…-of-the-u-s-navy/ ).

There were other nations who wanted to stop the piracy. The Kingdom’s of Naples, The Kingdom of Sicily along with Sweden quickly joined in the effort to suppress the Barbary Pirates.

The U.S. squadron which consisted of almost the entire U.S. Navy along with several Swedish frigates raided and blockaded the ports used by the Barbary Pirates. Some of the most famous actions of the early U.S. Navy took place during this campaign in which the fledgling U.S. government and its navy waged a successful campaign far from its shores.

In June 1805, a peace treaty was signed that freed all American and foreign sailors being held captive by the Barbary Pirates. Note, the treaty required the Jefferson administration to pay $60,000 to the pirates. Jefferson called the payment a “ransom,” not tribute. The decision in 1805 to pay the money was as unpopular then as it is today.

Image is the 1897 Edward Moran painting of the burning of the U.S.S. Philadelphia in Tripoli Harbor courtesy of the Navy History and Heritage Command.

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Alexander Hamilton, Continental Army Officer

Most Americans know Alexander Hamilton as the country’s first Secretary of the Treasury and the man who reformed the country’s finances. Some may be aware that Hamilton worked with Madison to help write clauses in the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

Others might know that Hamilton served on Washington’s staff. Most likely, very few know that Hamilton was an ardent student of military history and tactics.

Right after the war broke out, Hamilton formed the 1st Provincial New York Company of Artillery in 1776 which was a battery of four cannon. Elected its captain, Hamilton drilled the men so they could unlimber the cannon and get them into action quickly.

The battery took part in the September 16th, 1776, Battle of Harlem Heights and then on October 28th, 1776, Hamilton’s battery performed well during the Battle of White Plains by helping cover the Continental Army’s retreat from what was a tactical draw.

Captain Hamilton’s battery made the trek to the winter camp at Valley Forge and on the night of December 24th, it was ferried across the Delaware River. Hamilton positioned the battery so it could fire on the German soldiers as they tried to form in ranks. His guns rapid and accurate fire killed many German cannoneers and prevented them from firing on the attacking Continental Army soldiers.

Just a week later, at the Battle of Princeton, Hamilton’s battery was again in action. Even though the American’s retreated in the beginning of the fight, General Washington rallied the Continental Army that pushed the British Army back. A contingent of retreating British soldiers took shelter in a building known as Nassau Hall. On his own, Hamilton moved his battery so it could fire on the building. Shortly, 194 British soldiers surrendered.

Hamilton’s ability was recognized by many Continental Army generals who wanted him on their staff. He turned them all down saying he’d prefer to be with his battery. However, when Washington asked him to be his aide-de-camp and chief of staff, Hamilton could not turn his commander down. Promoted to lieutenant colonel, he served in this role with distinction for four years.

Still, Hamilton wanted to command troops or artillery in the field. Washington refused Hamilton’s many requests saying he was needed on his staff. Finally, a frustrated Hamilton handed Washington his letter of resignation saying he would withdraw it if he was given a field command.

Washington gave in and just before Yorktown, Hamilton took command of regimental sized force of three battalions of light infantry drawn from the 1st and 2nd New York regiments. His task, take the British Army’s Redoubt 10 at the same time the French army attacked Redoubt 9. If the combined Continental/French armies succeeded, the British Army’s defensive perimeter at Yorktown would be breached and Cornwallis would have no choice but to surrender.

Hamilton insisted on a night attack to surprise the British and minimize casualties. He led the first wave which captured Redoubt 10 in hand-to-hand fighting while the French took Redoubt 9 during the night of October 14, 1781. Three days later, Cornwallis surrendered.

Alexander Hamilton traits as an effective combat leader and an outstanding staff officer stood him well during the years while the country was still trying to find its footing. Unfortunately, Aaron Burr killed Hamilton in a duel after Hamilton fired his pistol in the air. Burr was supposed to do the same but decided to eliminate a political rival who might have beaten Jefferson who was planning on running for a second term. Besides killing Hamilton, Burr also killed the Federalist Party which never recovered from Hamilton’s death and loss of his vision and leadership.

Painting is H. Charles McBarron’s painting of the assault on Redoubt 1o courtesy of the Chief of the U.S. Army Historian’s office.

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