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Weekly Literary Spotlight: Jean-Paul Sartre

Jean-Paul Sartre was a colossal figure in 20th-century philosophy and literature. As a playwright, novelist, and political activist, Sartre’s multifaceted career spanned numerous disciplines and challenged conventional thought on the nature of existence. In this week’s Literary Spotlight, we explore his life, his literary and philosophical style, and just a few of his most notable works.

French philosopher-writer Jean Paul Sartre and writer Simone De Beauvoir arriving Israel and welcomed by Avraham Shlonsky and Leah Goldberg at Lod airport (14/03/1967).

Life Overview:

Sartre was born on June 21st, 1905 in Paris, France. The loss of his father early on led to a close bond with his mother and grandfather, who introduced him to the classics of literature and philosophy. Sartre's academic brilliance shone early; he attended the prestigious École Normale Supérieure, where he formed a lifelong intellectual partnership with Simone de Beauvoir.

Sartre's life was closely intertwined with the volatility of his time. During World War II, he served in the French Army and was later captured by the Germans. After his release, he became an active participant in the French Resistance. This period strongly influenced his philosophical development, prompting him to confront themes of freedom, responsibility, and existential angst. Sartre was not just a thinker but also a public intellectual who engaged with the political movements of his era, including Marxism and existentialism. He declined the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964, asserting that a writer's acceptance of such honors could compromise their independence.

Stylistic Overview:

Sartre's writing style is a unique blend of dense philosophical discourse and vivid literary creativity. His works often bridge the gap between philosophy and literature, using fiction to explore complex ideas and theoretical works to examine humanity’s essence. Sartre's prose is characterized by its clarity and precision, even when dealing with abstract and challenging concepts.

In his philosophical works, such as Being and Nothingness, Sartre employs a rigorous, almost scientific approach to dissecting human existence. His language is meticulous, aimed at unpacking the layers of consciousness and the nature of being. Conversely, his literary works, including plays like No Exit and novels like Nausea, utilize narrative and dialogue to illustrate existential themes in a more accessible and emotionally engaging manner.

Sartre's ability to move seamlessly between genres showcases his versatility. His fiction often serves as a practical illustration of his philosophical ideas, making abstract concepts tangible through character and plot. This duality in his style enables readers to engage with his ideas on multiple levels, whether through the intellectual challenge of his philosophical texts or the narrative pull of his fiction.

Notable Works:

Nausea (1938): This novel is often considered Sartre's seminal literary work. It tells the story of Antoine Roquentin, a man who experiences an acute existential crisis that leads him to a nauseating realization of the absurdity of existence. Through Roquentin's journey, Sartre explores themes of freedom, isolation, and the search for meaning.

Being and Nothingness (1943): This monumental work is Sartre's most comprehensive philosophical treatise. It is a study on the nature of consciousness, the concept of nothingness, and the intricacies of human freedom. The book's exploration of "bad faith" and the tension between being and nothingness has become foundational in existentialist thought.

No Exit (1944): This one-act play encapsulates Sartre's existentialist themes through the interactions of three characters trapped in a room, symbolizing hell. The famous line "Hell is other people" emphasizes the play's examination of self-deception, interpersonal relationships, and the inexorability of human entanglement.

From literature to psychology, Sartre’s work continues to influence a wide range of fields. Whether you’re a seasoned philosopher or you’re taking your first plunge into the world of existentialism, engaging with Sartre’s ideas all but guarantees a fascinating journey toward a deeper understanding the human condition.

Weekly Literary Spotlight: Haruki Murakami

Haruki Murakami, a Japanese writer whose work has garnered a global following, stands as one of the most influential and mysterious authors of contemporary literature. His novels, characterized by a blend of surrealism, melancholy, and profound humanism, invite readers into a world where the boundaries between reality and fantasy blur. In this week’s Literary Spotlight, we explore Murakami’s life, his unique approach to style, and his most notable works.

Haruki Murakami | Jerusalem Prize

Life Overview:

Murakami was born on January 12, 1949, in Kyoto, Japan, but grew up in the port city of Kobe. His parents were both teachers of Japanese literature, which exposed him to the world of books from a young age. However, Murakami's literary influences were largely Western; he grew up reading American and European literature, which unsurprisingly impacted his writing style later on.

Murakami attended Waseda University in Tokyo and studied drama. During his time at university, he met and married Yoko, his lifelong partner. After graduating, he opened a jazz bar called Peter Cat in Tokyo, which he ran with his wife for several years. The experience of running a bar influenced his writing, providing a backdrop for many of his characters who often frequent bars and cafés.

His writing career began relatively late. It was not until he was 29 years old that Murakami decided to write his first novel, Hear the Wind Sing, which won the Gunzo Award for new writers and marked the beginning of his journey as a novelist. Murakami has since become a prolific writer; his works have been translated into over 50 languages and have earned numerous literary awards and nominations worldwide.

Stylistic Overview:

Murakami's style is a distinctive blend of magical realism, existentialism, and postmodernism. His narratives often feature ordinary characters who find themselves in extraordinary situations, muddling the lines between the mundane and the fantastical. This juxtaposition creates a one-of-a-kind reading experience, during which the surreal elements of his stories feel almost natural and commonplace.

A hallmark of Murakami's work is his minimalistic prose. His writing is often straightforward, yet it carries deep emotional undercurrents and philosophical musings. This simplicity allows for the complexity of his themes—such as loneliness and the search for meaning—to resonate more strongly with readers.

Music, particularly jazz and classical, plays a significant role in his novels, often serving as a backdrop to the narrative or as a metaphor for the characters' emotional states. Murakami's own passion for music is evident in the detailed descriptions and references throughout his work.

Another notable aspect of his style is the frequent incorporation of dream logic and subconscious experiences. Characters often undergo dreamlike adventures that challenge their perceptions of reality. This quality is critical to his storytelling, allowing Murakami to explore the depths of the psyche in a way that feels both intimate and universal.

Notable Works:

Norwegian Wood (1987): This novel is perhaps Murakami's most famous work. A nostalgic and poignant story, it explores themes of love, loss, and mental illness through the lens of a young man's recollections of his university days in Tokyo. The novel's straightforward narrative exhibits a departure from Murakami's earlier, more surreal works, which earned him widespread acclaim and a broader readership.

1Q84 (2009-2010): A sprawling, ambitious work, 1Q84 is set in a parallel world resembling Tokyo in 1984. The novel follows two protagonists, Aomame and Tengo, whose lives intersect in a fantastical narrative involving alternate dimensions, a religious cult, and a mysterious novel. The title itself is a play on George Orwell's 1984, and the book touches on themes of power, control, and the permeable fabric of reality.

The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1994-1995): This novel is a quintessential example of Murakami's blend of the mundane and the surreal. It follows Toru Okada, an unemployed man whose search for his missing wife leads him into a strange, dreamlike world where concrete answers are difficult to come by. The novel addresses themes of personal identity, historical memory, and the impact of Japan's militaristic past.

To this day, Haruki Murakami invites readers into his uniquely crafted worlds where the ordinary becomes extraordinary (and vice versa), and the search for meaning is a long journey through surreal psychological landscapes. His contribution to contemporary literature is undeniable, making him a true literary enigma of our time.

Weekly Literary Spotlight: Vladimir Nabokov

Vladimir Nabokov’s writings are a testament to the boundless possibilities of language, narrative, and imagination. In this week’s Literary Spotlight, we explore three facets of Nabokov's persona: his life, his stylistic qualities, and his most notable works.

Nabokov in Montreux, Switzerland, 1973

Life Overview:

Nabokov was born on April 22, 1899, in Saint Petersburg, Russia, into an aristocratic family that fostered his early love for literature and languages. He grew up privileged and surrounded by intellectual enrichment, having learned to speak Russian, English, and French fluently. His family’s fortune changed, however, with the Russian Revolution, which led to their emigration to Western Europe. Nabokov studied at Cambridge University where he earned a degree in Slavic and Romance languages.

In the 1920s and 1930s, Nabokov established himself as a writer in Berlin and Paris, publishing under the pseudonym Vladimir Sirin. He married a Russian-Jewish woman named Véra Slonim in 1925; as Nabokov’s primary editor and translator, she established herself as an essential partner in his literary career. Fleeing the rise of Nazism, they arrived in the United States in 1940, where Nabokov found both refuge and literary acclaim. Despite his nomadic existence, he never lost touch with his Russian roots, infusing his writing with a deep sense of nostalgia for the lost world of pre-revolutionary Russia. He spent his later years in Switzerland and continued to write until his death in 1977.

Stylistic Overview:

Nabokov’s writing is celebrated for its intricate style, rich imagery, and linguistic playfulness. His works often explore themes of memory, exile, and the labyrinthine nature of human consciousness. Nabokov was a master of metafiction, frequently breaking the fourth wall and incorporating literary puzzles and games into his narratives. His prose is characterized by its elegance and precision, demonstrating a keen attention to the musicality of language.

Nabokov’s background as a multilingual émigré profoundly influenced his style, thus infusing his English-language works with a unique blend of Russian sensibility and Western literary tradition. His narratives often unfold with an air of dreamlike surrealism, creating layers of meaning that invite multiple readings. Nabokov was also an avid lepidopterist, and his fascination with butterflies often found symbolic resonance in his work, reflecting themes of transformation and ephemeral beauty.

Notable Works:

Lolita (1955): Perhaps Nabokov’s most famous and controversial work, Lolita tells the story of Humbert Humbert, a middle-aged literature professor, and his obsessive, illicit love for twelve-year-old Dolores Haze, whom he nicknames “Lolita". The novel is renowned for its lyrical prose and its ability to elicit empathy for its morally reprehensible narrator. Despite its provocative subject matter, Lolita is widely regarded as a masterpiece for its narrative complexity and stylistic brilliance.

Pale Fire (1962): Pale Fire is a novel presented as a 999-line poem written by the fictional poet John Shade, accompanied by a foreword and extensive commentary by Shade’s eccentric neighbor, Charles Kinbote. The novel is a dazzling exploration of unreliable narration, with Kinbote’s commentary often overshadowing and distorting the poem’s content. This work exemplifies Nabokov’s fascination with the interplay between reality and fiction, as well as his skill in constructing intricate literary puzzles.

Speak, Memory (1951): An autobiographical memoir, Speak, Memory chronicles Nabokov’s idyllic childhood in pre-revolutionary Russia, his family’s exile, and his early years as a writer. The memoir is celebrated for its vivid, poetic descriptions and its exploration of the role of memory in shaping identity. Nabokov’s reflective and nostalgic prose offers a window into the formative experiences that influenced his later works, making Speak, Memory a key text for understanding his literary oeuvre.

Nabokov’s legacy as an innovator in the world of literature endures; his work reveals a distinct stylistic virtuosity and keen observations on the nuances of consciousness. We cannot recommend them strongly enough!

Weekly Literary Spotlight: Ernest Hemingway

Ernest Hemingway was one of the most influential writers of the 20th century. In this week’s Literary Spotlight, we learn why Hemingway, a man known for his adventurous spirit and deceptively simple writing style, continues to be a source of intrigue for readers and writers alike.

Hemingway working on For Whom the Bell Tolls at the Sun Valley Lodge, 1939

Life Overview:

Born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, Ernest Hemingway grew up in a comfortable, suburban environment. His father was a physician, and his mother a musician, which provided him with a vibrant and well-rounded upbringing. From a young age, Hemingway showed a keen interest in outdoor activities which would later influence much of his writing. After high school, he worked briefly as a reporter for The Kansas City Star, where he honed his concise writing style.

During World War I, Hemingway volunteered as an ambulance driver for the Red Cross in Italy, an experience that profoundly affected him and served as material for his later works. He was seriously wounded by Austrian mortar fire and returned home a war hero, and his post-war years were defined by a restless pursuit of adventure and writing. Hemingway lived in various places, including Paris, Spain, and Cuba, and immersed himself fully in the cultures and landscapes that would color his stories.

Hemingway's personal life was as turbulent as his writing was disciplined. He married four times and had three children. His passion for adventure led him to hunt big game in Africa, fish in the Gulf Stream, and cover wars as a journalist. Unfortunately, his later years were marred by ill health and depression. On July 2, 1961, Hemingway took his own life at his home in Ketchum, Idaho.

Stylistic Overview:

Often referred to as the "Iceberg Theory" or "Theory of Omission”, Hemingway’s writing style is characterized by its economy of words and its understated, unadorned prose. Hemingway believed that the deeper meaning of a story should not be evident on the surface, but should shine through implicitly. This technique encourages readers to read between the lines and engage more deeply with the text.

His dialogue is particularly notable for its realism in the way it manages to capture the essence of conversation without superfluous detail. Hemingway's language is straightforward, often employing short, simple sentences that create a cogent and rhythmic reading experience. This stylistic approach was revolutionary at the time and has influenced countless writers since, including Albert Camus and Cormac McCarthy.

Hemingway's themes often revolve around concepts of courage, stoicism, and the human condition. His protagonists are typically stoic, resilient individuals facing immense personal and physical challenges. This focus on inner strength and existential struggle resonates throughout his body of work, making his stories both timeless and universally relevant.

Notable Works:

The Sun Also Rises (1926): Hemingway's first major novel, "The Sun Also Rises," is a poignant exploration of the post-World War I "Lost Generation." The novel follows a group of expatriates in Europe, primarily in Paris and Spain, as they navigate the disillusionment that characterized the era. The story centers on Jake Barnes and his unrequited love for Brett Ashley, capturing the moral and psychological dissolution of those who lived through the war.

A Farewell to Arms (1929): Set against the backdrop of World War I, "A Farewell to Arms" is a semi-autobiographical novel that tells the tragic love story of an American ambulance driver, Lieutenant Frederic Henry, and a British nurse, Catherine Barkley. The novel explores themes of love, war, and loss, and is acclaimed for its stark portrayal of the horrors of war and the ephemeral nature of happiness.

The Old Man and the Sea (1952): One of Hemingway's most famous works, "The Old Man and the Sea," tells the story of Santiago, an aging Cuban fisherman who engages in an epic battle with a giant marlin. This novella is a meditation on strength, perseverance, and the human spirit. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1953 and contributed significantly to Hemingway being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.

Hemingway's legacy speaks for itself through his distinctive style and storytelling abilities. His works continue to remind us of the lasting power of simplicity and the depth that can be found within the unspoken.

Weekly Literary Spotlight: Sylvia Plath

Sylvia Plath, a poet whose name evokes both admiration and sorrow, left an enduring impact on the evolution of modern literature. Born on October 27, 1932, in Boston, Massachusetts, Plath's life was marked by brilliance, but also by inner turmoil and profound despair. In this week’s Literary Spotlight, we examine Sylvia Plath’s anguished life, her literary style, and just a few of her most notable works.

Sylvia Plath, sitting sideways to the camera

Life Overview:

In her early life, Plath excelled academically and became cognizant of her burgeoning passion for writing, having won numerous awards for her poetry during her time at Smith College. However, beneath the surface of her outward success, Plath struggled profoundly with mental illness, a battle that would ultimately define much of her adult life.

After graduating from Smith, Plath received a Fulbright scholarship to study at Cambridge University in England. It was during this time that she met fellow poet Ted Hughes, whom she would later marry. The tumultuous nature of their relationship, marked by infidelity and emotional upheaval, would deeply influence Plath's writing.

Plath's struggles with depression tragically culminated in her untimely death by suicide at the age of 30. Despite the brevity of her life, Plath's literary contributions are continually impactful, offering a haunting glimpse into the intricacies and vulnerabilities of the soul.

Stylistic Overview:

Plath's writing is characterized by its raw emotion, confessional style, and vivid imagery. Her poetry explores the shadowy crevices of the psyche through themes of mental illness, identity, and nature. Plath’s confessional style of writing, influenced by poets such as Anne Sexton and Robert Lowell, lays bare her innermost thoughts and feelings, inviting readers into the intensity of her own personal anguish.

One of the most striking elements of Plath's writing is her use of symbolism and metaphor. Through her evocative imagery and powerful language, Plath creates a world that is at once beautiful and profoundly disturbing. Her exploration of themes such as death, rebirth, and female identity is both unflinching and deeply introspective, and it challenges readers to confront their own fears and insecurities.

Notable Works:

"Ariel" (1965): Published posthumously, "Ariel" is perhaps Plath's most famous collection of poetry. Filled with raw emotion and searing imagery, the poems in "Ariel" touch on the recesses of the damaged psyche. They grapple with themes of mental illness, identity, and the search for meaning in a world of apathy.

"The Bell Jar" (1963): Her only novel, "The Bell Jar" is a semi-autobiographical account of Plath’s struggles with mental illness. The novel follows the protagonist, Esther Greenwood, as she descends into madness and despair. Themes such as societal pressure, gender roles, sexuality, and insanity permeate the work.

"Daddy" (1962): One of Plath's most famous poems, "Daddy" explores the complex relationship between the speaker and her father. Brimming with intensity, the poem explores themes of power, control, and the lingering effects of childhood trauma.

Sylvia Plath remains a towering figure in the world of modern literature, her work continuing to captivate readers around the world. Through her powerful and haunting prose, Plath challenges readers to confront their own fears, insecurities, and deepest desires. As we consider the complexities of Plath's life and works, we are reminded of the unwavering power of art to illuminate the depths of the psyche and offer solace in times of profound despair.

A History of Literary Criticism

I thought it might be informative to present a summary of literary criticism in the American academy and explain how these ideas came to define our current political climate. In short, here’s my take on how we started, how it went, and how we got here. 

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We can date contemporary American academia back to the 19th century, with the emergence of “liberal arts” education in elite universities such as Harvard and Yale. Based on Protestant ideals, this sort of education emphasized critical thinking and was structured around a centralized European canon. Early conservative thinkers such as literary critic Irving Babbitt believed that education should be instrumental in the development of moral character. Along with Paul Elmer More, he developed the New Humanist school of pedagogical thought, which attempted to discredit naturalist, romantic, and utilitarian thinkers. Babbitt derived his views from the tradition of classical liberalism and had a heavy influence on my personal literary idol, T.S. Eliot. Eliot is often credited as the forerunner of modern literary criticism, and he founded the school of thought that we know today as New Criticism. You might not have heard of New Criticism by its formal name, but you’ve definitely encountered it if you went through any sort of American high school—its primary methodology is the idea of “close reading” and sticking to the content of a literary text to infer its meaning. 

   

New Criticism established itself as the dominant ideology of the literary academy in the early 20th century. The premise was straightforward: you pick up a novel or a poem, look at the words the author uses, consider the connotations of those words, and draw conclusions. In a similar vein, the Russian Formalists were busy creating a system of textual analysis that would focus on a work’s structural or linguistic elements. Critic Roman Jakobson, for instance, believed that a text’s distinctive features were instrumental in revealing its fundamental meaning. As Russian Formalism seeped into the American academy, it gained immense popularity and was practiced alongside New Criticism (although these two schools of thought developed entirely independently of one another). These two methods might have remained dominant had the study of literature been organized around a broader scope of texts instead of a primary canon—yet the problem here was that if you keep close-reading the same set of materials, you eventually run out of new things to say. 

Let’s briefly revisit our friend Irving Babbitt. While Babbitt pushed a model of education that primarily limited itself to the individual—i.e., the effect that a given text, idea, model, document, etc. would have on an individual’s moral development—his main adversaries, a group of philosophers belonging to a school of thought called Pragmatism, pushed the idea that these same modes of learning could not be self-contained and must instead have some bearing on the circumstances around us. The big names in Pragmatism that are relevant to us are Charles Sanders Peirce and William James. Peirce and James set about defining the concept of “practical consequences,” according to which any object might be defined by its external repercussions. This line of thought eventually allowed the Pragmatists to blur the dictates of objective truth and claim that everyone’s truths were predicated on their surrounding realities. In schools, this translated to the philosophy of John Dewey, who believed that education should be a social instead of an individualist function. 

While the Pragmatists didn’t explicitly dabble in literary theory, their heavy involvement in education began to appeal to Babbitt’s other opponents, whom we might characterize as the Progressives. Progressives, backed by Woodrow Wilson at the time, adapted pragmatist philosophy by introducing the idea of government intervention in education as a function of greater social good. By the 1930s, Babbitt’s classical liberalism was on the way out. 

Meanwhile, in the literary academy, New Criticism had evolved into a project espoused by William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley. With their publication in 1947 of the essay “The Intentional Fallacy,” Wimsatt and Beardsley challenged the concept of authorial intent and proclaimed that a reader’s response to a given text should be independent of its author’s original intention. This revolutionary idea—that it didn’t matter what the author meant—gained immediate traction in the academy and became the cornerstone of many schools of contemporary literary thought. This method of analysis eventually gave birth to the Reader-Response school of literary criticism, which is often associated with Yeshiva University professor Stanley Fish. Fish’s writing focuses on subjective reader experience and why the meaning of a given text should depend almost entirely on a reader’s individual interpretation.  

Let’s backpedal one more time before this all starts to make sense. We’re in France in 1916. A posthumous publication of a series of lectures given by one Ferdinand de Saussure effectively creates the field of modern linguistics and redefines the way that we think of words. Saussurean linguistics, as outlined in his Course in General Linguistics, is predicated on the concept of the “sign,” a double entity that is composed of a “signifier” and its “signified.” If we picture a horse, for example, the physical horse standing before us is the “signified” and the word “horse” is the “signifier” that we use to denote the idea of a horse. If I had said “cat” instead, you’d be picturing a cat. The fact that I used the word “horse,” however, is, according to Saussure, completely arbitrary—that is, there is no particular reason why a horse is a “horse” and not a “kompumpum.” (I made that up, please don’t attempt to Google it.) The sign is not only arbitrary but also differential—its value is determined by the nature of the signs around it. You knew I was talking about a physical horse because I told you to picture a horse, but if I had told you to picture two little kids horsing around, you’d have a completely different image in your mind despite the fact that I’d just used the same word. The idea here is that we know what words mean based on context, and no words can attain their proper meaning when considered in a vacuum. 

This school of thought is called Structuralism, and, as you might guess, it had an enormous influence on the literary academy. Structuralism takes on a related meaning in anthropology, and while I’m not an anthropologist, let’s briefly discuss the structural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. Lévi-Strauss’s travels to Brazil famously informed his contributions to the field of ethnography, and his relationship to literature is closely associated with his ensuing interest in the study of mythology. Borrowing from Saussure, Lévi-Strauss argued that the fundamental unit of structure in mythology—what he called the mytheme—could be explained using binary opposition theory. Just as the meaning of language came about by setting words in opposition to one another, myths had always been constructed by juxtaposing two opposing ideas. (Lévi-Strauss also drew heavily on the Hegelian dialectic of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.) In other words, according to Lévi-Strauss, mythology was there to reconcile and examine opposing concepts in life and to help us understand binaries such as good/evil, day/night, man/woman, etc. 

Lévi-Strauss’s reinterpretation of structuralism was central in establishing the school of Post-Structuralism that surfaced in the 1960s and still informs literary and general humanistic study today. World War II had left previously established academic truths either in complete shambles or in danger of incipient subversion. Along came an Algerian Frenchman named Jacques Derrida. In 1966, Derrida published a lecture that he had presented at Johns Hopkins University called “Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences.” The essay drew heavily on Saussure and Lévi-Strauss but argued that Saussure and Lévi-Strauss’s structuralism relied too heavily on the idea of a privileged “center.” In Derrida’s view, binary opposition in the West had always developed with a hierarchical dimension that necessarily privileged one side of the binary over the other. Good always trumped evil, day always trumped night, and man always trumped woman. The following year, Derrida adapted this view in his longer work Of Grammatology, where he set out to deconstruct the entire history of what he termed “Western Metaphysics.” Derrida’s central argument (as far as one exists amidst his opaque logic and gratuitous academic jargon) was that the Western tradition had always privileged one side of the binary over the other—specifically, speech over writing. Thus Derrida coined the term “logocentrism” to identify a system in which words constitute an objective, external reality and create immediate access to meaning. The term took on a heavily negative connotation as Derrida began to destroy the pillars of objective reality and create his school of Deconstruction (although he famously objected to this term when it was thrust upon his methodology). In Derrida’s view, the idea that the meaning of literature, or any other facet of external reality, was so readily accessible was flawed almost to the point of deplorability. 

Following in Derrida’s footsteps, as well as in those of Wimsatt and Beardsley, the progenitors of Reader-Response theory, French critic Roland Barthes shifted literature’s burden of meaning entirely to the reader with the publication of his 1967 essay “The Death of the Author.” As its title suggests, Barthes claimed that authorial intention and identity were entirely irrelevant to a reader’s interpretation of a given text. Two years later, fellow French postmodern scholar Michel Foucault reinforced Barthes’ ideas with the delivery of his lecture “What Is an Author,”  where he argued that the concept of “author” was simply a societally constructed abstraction that had historically served to ascribe meaning to a given autonomous text. If you’re familiar with this fashionable concept of the social construct, you might not be surprised to learn that Foucault was one of its prime architects. Foucault’s four-volume History of Sexuality deals  with the development of and attitudes towards sexuality in the West. With this work, he introduced the idea of sexual morality as culturally relative and put forth the claim that sexuality was ultimately a social construct.  

The year is now 1976. By the time Foucault made his entrance onto the academic stage, the concept of objective truth was losing ground in the academy. The expansion of American higher education after World War II had resulted in a massive influx of PhD students and their concomitant dissertations. The lack of clear subject matter had encouraged many students to align themselves with the hazy theorizing of the French postmodernists. Feminist and gender theorists such as Judith Butler and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, following in Foucault’s footsteps, set out to redefine our conception of gender. Gender and sexuality were suddenly central to the analysis of any literary text, and ethnicity followed suit with the entrance of Edward Said and Gayatri Spivak’s Post-Colonialism, which examined the repercussions of white exploitation of colonized peoples in literature and anthropological study. Around this same time, Columbia and UCLA Law professor Kimberlé Crenshaw began to advocate for the welfare of marginalized black voices and thereby helped to establish Critical Race Theory and intersectionality. The Neo-Marxism of Walter Benjamin, Frederic Jameson, and Theodor Adorno helped inform the ensuing discourse on equity and soon became yet another staple of literary criticism. Out of Neo-Marxism came Stephen Greenblatt’s New Historicism, which stripped literature of its “fixed” literary value and ascribed objective literary quality to the existing power structures of the time. By the 1980s and early 1990s, the ideological transformation of the academy was complete, and social justice was born.

Whether you agree with the development of literary theory or not, I believe that those of us who wish to study literature should take a breather. Perhaps it is wiser for us all to stop trying to find hidden, abstruse themes where they don’t exist. Above all else, literature is an expression of human emotion and beauty, and before we begin to dissect it word by word, we should first consider that a book is a work of art, and like any work of art, is best appreciated with an ever-present aura of mystery and grandeur. 

Weekly Literary Spotlight: Albert Camus

A French philosopher, author, and journalist, Albert Camus is best known for his existentialist works that explore the absurdity of human existence. Born on November 7, 1913, in Mondovi, Algeria, Camus's life was marked by a constant search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe. His unique literary style and profound philosophical insights have left an indelible mark on 20th-century literature.

Portrait from New York World-Telegram and Sun Photograph Collection, 1957

Life Overview:

Camus was born into poverty, his father having died in World War I when he was just a year old. Raised by his mother, he showed an early aptitude for academics. He moved to France to study philosophy at the University of Algiers, where he became associated with the existentialist movement.

During World War II, Camus joined the French Resistance and became an editor of the underground newspaper Combat, where he advocated for independence and social justice. His experiences during this time greatly influenced his philosophical perspective, particularly his belief in the absurdity of the human condition.

Camus was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957 for his significant literary contributions. He died in a car accident on January 4, 1960, at just 46; a tragedy that cut short what could have been an even more remarkable literary career.

Stylistic Overview:

Camus's writing style is characterized by its clarity, simplicity, and elegance. He had a remarkable ability to convey complex philosophical ideas in a way that was accessible to a wide audience. His prose is often sparse and unadorned, yet it is saturated with a deep sense of empathy and humanity.

One of Camus's most distinctive stylistic features is his exploration of the absurd. He believed that life is inherently meaningless and that humans must create their own “meaning” in a world that is brutally indifferent to their existence. This theme is central to much of his work and is expressed through his use of vivid imagery, stark symbolism, and existentialist concepts.

Notable Works:

The Stranger (1942): Arguably Camus' most well-known work, this novel tells the story of Meursault, an emotionally detached and amoral Algerian clerk who is convicted of murder. The novel is a powerful exploration of the absurdity of the human condition and the meaninglessness of existence.

The Myth of Sisyphus (1942): In this essay, Camus famously declares that "the only truly serious philosophical problem is suicide.” He argues that life is inherently meaningless, but that we must nevertheless find a way to live with dignity and purpose in the face of this hopelessly absurd conclusion.

The Plague (1947): A novel widely considered Camus' most profound and enduring work, The Plague is set in the Algerian city of Oran and tells the story of a plague epidemic while exploring themes of suffering, solidarity, and the human condition. The Plague is a powerful allegory for the Nazi occupation of France during World War II and remains relevant to this day as a meditation on the nature of evil and the resilience of the human spirit.

Albert Camus was a literary “Übermensch” whose works continue to resonate with readers around the world. His examination of the senselessness of the human condition, his distinctive writing style, and his profound philosophical acuity mark him as one of the most important writers of the 20th century.

Weekly Literary Spotlight: Edgar Allan Poe

Here’s an idea: let’s continue our investigation of some of the most angst-ridden authors in history! For a great majority of us, the mention of Edgar Allan Poe immediately evokes images of macabre tales, haunting poetry, and a life shrouded in mystery. Born on January 19, 1809, in Boston, Massachusetts, Poe's tumultuous life and unparalleled literary contributions have cemented his legacy as one of the foremost figures in American literature. In this week’s Literary Spotlight, we explore his sorrow-filled life, his stylistic characteristics, and his most notable literary contributions.

Life Overview:

Poe's life was a series of tragedies and triumphs, many of which were intricately woven into the fabric of his writing. Orphaned at a young age, Poe was taken in by John Allan, a wealthy tobacco merchant, and his wife Frances. Despite their affluence, Poe's relationship with the Allans was strained, marked by financial disagreements and personal discord. This tumultuous familial environment undoubtedly left an indelible mark on Poe's psyche, influencing the dark themes that permeate his works.

Throughout his life, Poe grappled with poverty, addiction, and loss. His marriage to his cousin, Virginia Clemm, was plagued by illness and ultimately ended in her premature death; a devastating blow that further fueled his melancholic prose. Despite these personal hardships, Poe's literary career flourished intermittently. He worked as an editor, critic, and poet, and left an enduring mark on the literary landscape with his pioneering contributions to the genres of horror, mystery, and suspense.

Stylistic Overview:

Poe's writing is characterized by its dark and Gothic ambiance, drawing readers into a realm of psychological turmoil and existential dread. His meticulous attention to detail and mastery of suspense evoke a sense of foreboding unease, compelling readers to confront their deepest anxieties. Poe's fascination with the macabre is evident in his exploration of themes such as death, madness, and the supernatural; elements that continue to captivate readers of today.

Like Kafka, one of Poe's signature stylistic devices is his use of unreliable narrators who blur the lines between reality and delusion. Many of Poe’s narrators are so inundated with alternate personas that they experience complete detachment from their true identities. This narrative technique adds layers of complexity to his tales, leaving readers questioning the veracity of the events unfolding before them. Moreover, Poe's command of language is unparalleled; each word is meticulously chosen to conjure a specific emotional response. His prose, although overwhelmingly dark, is imbued with an exquisite beauty which fuels his most melancholic passages.

Notable Works:

“The Raven”: First published in 1845, “The Raven” is one of Poe's most famous poems. It tells the story of a man who is visited by a talking raven, which gradually drives him to madness as he mourns the loss of his love, Lenore. The poem's pitch-black atmosphere, rhythmic meter, and haunting refrain of "Nevermore" have made it an enduring classic of American literature.

"The Tell-Tale Heart”: A short story first published in 1843, renowned for its exploration of guilt, obsession, and madness. The unnamed narrator, driven by an irrational fear of an old man's vulture-like eye, commits a heinous crime and is tormented by the imagined sound of the victim's beating heart. Poe's mastery of psychological tension and unreliable narration makes this story a chilling masterpiece of Gothic fiction.

”The Fall of the House of Usher”: A Gothic tale published in 1839, “The Fall of the House of Usher” follows the narrator as he visits his friend Roderick Usher, whose ancestral mansion is plagued by decay and supernatural phenomena. As the story unfolds, the line between reality and madness becomes obscured, leading to a terrifying climax. Poe's skillful use of symbolism, atmosphere, and psychological depth makes "The Fall of the House of Usher" a cornerstone of Gothic literature.

Through his exploration of themes such as love, death, and madness, Poe challenges us to confront our fears and grapple with the turmoil of existence. As we reflect on his legacy, let us not only appreciate his literary genius but also acknowledge the relevance of his insights into the darkest spheres of the human experience. Edgar Allan Poe remains a timeless literary icon whose words continue to inspire – and haunt – generations of readers.

Weekly Literary Spotlight: Franz Kafka

Franz Kafka, the enigmatic figure of 20th-century literature, has long fascinated readers with his haunting narratives and profound insights into the human condition. His life, marked by personal struggles and existential angst, deeply influenced his unique literary style, which is characterized by surrealism, absurdity, and a lingering sense of alienation. In this post, we delve into the multifaceted persona of Kafka, exploring his life, discussing his idiosyncratic style, and highlighting some of his most notable works that continue to captivate readers around the world.

Franz Kafka, photographed as a young teen around 1906. (Wikimedia Commons)

Life Overview:

Franz Kafka was born on July 3, 1883, in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, into a middle-class Jewish family. He was the eldest surviving son among six siblings. Kafka's relationship with his domineering father and his conflicted feelings about his Jewish identity deeply influenced his worldview and literary themes.

After obtaining a law degree, Kafka worked with various insurance companies; jobs he detested but which provided him with financial stability. His evenings were dedicated to writing, a solitary pursuit through which he grappled with his existential demons.

Kafka's personal life was marked by loneliness and emotional turmoil. His relationships, particularly with women, were fraught with complexities and often ended in heartbreak. His struggles with physical and mental health further exacerbated his sense of alienation from the world around him.

Kafka's life was tragically cut short when he succumbed to tuberculosis on June 3, 1924, at the age of 40. Despite his relatively brief existence, his literary legacy endures as a testament to the complexities of the human psyche and the absurdity of existence.

Stylistic Overview:

Kafka's literary style is defined by existential angst and profound introspection. His works often depict nightmarish scenarios and labyrinthine bureaucracies, reflecting his own sense of alienation and the absurdity of modern life.

One of Kafka's signature techniques is the use of the unreliable narrator, through which he blurs the lines between reality and hallucination, leaving readers questioning the nature of truth and perception. His prose is sparse yet evocative, conveying a sense of unease and disquietude that lingers long after the last page is turned.

Kafka's writing is steeped in symbolism and allegory, inviting readers to interpret his works on multiple levels. Themes of guilt, isolation, and the struggle for autonomy permeate his narratives, resonating with readers across cultures and generations.

Notable Works:

The Metamorphosis (1915): Perhaps Kafka's most famous work, "The Metamorphosis" tells the story of Gregor Samsa, who wakes up one morning to find himself transformed into a giant insect. Through this bizarre premise, Kafka explores themes of alienation, identity, and the dehumanizing effects of modern society.

The Trial (1925): Posthumously published, "The Trial" follows the protagonist, Josef K., as he navigates a bewildering legal system that accuses him of a crime that is never revealed. The novel is a chilling indictment of the arbitrary nature of power and the individual's futile struggle against an oppressive bureaucracy.

The Castle (1926): In "The Castle," Kafka tells the story of a land surveyor named K. who is summoned to a remote village governed by a mysterious castle. As K. attempts to gain access to the castle and uncover the truth of his mission, he becomes ensnared in a web of absurdity and frustration. The novel is a haunting exploration of the quest for meaning in a world devoid of answers.

Kafka's vivid exploration of existential themes and his innovative literary style have earned him a place among the most influential writers of the 20th century. Though he may have felt like an outsider in his own time, Kafka's legacy as a literary visionary remains undiminished; a beacon of truth illuminating the shadows of the human condition.