By late in the sixteenth century Amsterdam was replacing Antwerp as Europe’s primary port and financial center. It did so largely by default, as Antwerp’s economy was wrecked by war and Spanish occupiers, who destroyed its democratic practices and ate up its financial and commercial institutions. It is remarkable that Amsterdam was able to function as a port, because entry to its shallow harbor required passage over a large mud bank. Through the fifteenth century this was accomplished by keeping the ships serving Amsterdam small and relatively flatbottomed.
