The Selfish Gene

by Richard Dawkins

Another of Axelrod’s technical terms is ‘forgiving’. A forgiving strategy is one that, although it may retaliate, has a short memory. It is swift to overlook old misdeeds. Tit for Tat is a forgiving strategy. It raps a defector over the knuckles instantly but, after that, lets bygones be bygones. Chapter 10’S Grudger is totally unforgiving. Its memory lasts the entire game. It never forgets a grudge against a player who has ever defected against it, even once. A strategy formally identical to Grudger was entered in Axelrod’s tournament under the name of Friedman, and it didn’t do particularly well. Of all the nice strategies (note that it is technically nice, although it is totally unforgiving), Grudger/Friedman did next to worst. The reason unforgiving strategies don’t do very well is that they can’t break out of runs of mutual recrimination, even when their opponent is ‘remorseful’. It is possible to be even more forgiving than Tit for Tat. Tit for Two Tats allows its opponents two defections in a row before it eventually retaliates. This might seem excessively saintly and magnanimous. Nevertheless Axelrod worked out that, if only somebody had submitted Tit for Two Tats, it would have won the tournament. This is because it is so good at avoiding runs of mutual recrimination. So, we have identified two characteristics of winning strategies: niceness and forgivingness. This almost utopian-sounding conclusion—that niceness and forgivingness pay—came as a surprise to many of...