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Belgian historian Henri Pirenne famously argued that without Muhammad, Charlemagne would be inconceivable.[73] The political vacuum in northwestern Europe ultimately led to the emergence of a new order that was dominated by a patchwork of small kingdoms, feudal lords and thriving city-states but was at the same time unified by its Christian identity, in opposition to its Muslim neighbors to the south and east.[74]
Pathogenesis: A History of the World in Eight Plagues
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