Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement

by John Hattie

questioning (d = 0.73), and responding to student questioning (d = 0.70).

various types of competitive forensics methods of creatively working through problems (d = 0.41).

younger participants gained more from outdoor programs than older participants.

He also reported an effect of d = 0.33 on engagement, d = 0.29 on reducing risk behaviors, and d = 0.23 on identity formation. Similarly, he found an effect from participating in sports of d = 0.10 on achievement, d = 0.16 on engagement, d = –0.16 on reducing risk behaviors, and d = 0.15 on identity formation.

Keep those kids on teams

Participation in work had a zero (d = –0.01) effect on achievement, d = 0.07 on engagement, d = 0.29 on increasing risk behaviors, and d = 0.35 in identity formation.

Sadie annd the killers

participation in the performing arts had the least effect on all outcomes.

opportunities to develop a social network,

It is less the content of curricula that is important than the strategies teachers use to implement the curriculum so that students progress upwards through the curricula content.

refer to more passive or to constructivist teaching methods—the very ones that are least successful (no matter how palatable they may seem).

There are at least two levels of understanding involved: surface knowledge (such as vocabulary programs in reading, phonics instruction), and deep understanding (such as creativity programs).

The highest effects of social skills training related to peer-relations among all students.

challenge and purpose of the lesson.

If such goal-directed lessons are to be successful, they must also use appropriate feedback, take account of students’ views of the process of learning, and ensure students are actively involved in monitoring their own learning and developing their own meta-cognitive skills.

procedural and declarative knowledge and then to the students actually using this knowledge.

Learning intentions describe what it is we want students to learn in terms of the skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values within any particular unit or lesson.

Never thought about teaching explicitly what an intellectual attitude is....interesting idea

While learning intentions are what we intend students to learn, the students may also learn other things not planned for, and we need to be aware of these unintended consequences.

achieving a sense of mastery based on self-referenced standards.

knowing how they will be implemented. Learning intentions take the form “I intend to reach x” and by articulating how they intend to reach “x”, teachers and students are expressing an “implementation intention”.

having a sense of “if-then” that helps the implementation of goal intentions.

Conditional

A major reason difficult goals are more effective is that they lead to a clearer notion of success and direct the student's attention to relevant behaviors or outcomes, whereas “doing your best” can fit with a very wide range of goals.

There is a direct linear relationship between the degree of goal difficulty and performance.

!!!!!

A basis of many claims about the value of student self-assessment, self-evaluation, self-monitoring, and self-learning is that students have a reasonable understanding of where they are at, where they are going, what it will look like when they get there, and where they will go to next: that is, they have clear goals, learning intentions, and success criteria.

use the notion of “personal bests”.

holds a slice of performance orientation because the student competes with his or her own previous performance” (Martin, 2006, p. 816).

This indicates a need, therefore, to set appropriately challenging short-term goals for surface learning outcomes and set appropriately challenging long-term goals for deep learning outcomes.

certainly not less than 50 percent known to unknown (d = 0.49).

behavioral objectives are statements of what students ought to be able to do as a consequence of instruction (Popham, Eisner, Sullivan, & Tyler, 1969), but they tend to be more often used for surface rather than deeper knowledge.

advance organizers have a small but facilitative effect on both learning and retention, with the effect increasing over time (d = 0.21). Similarly, Stone (1983) found that advance organizers were associated with increased learning and retention of teaching material.

Too often, advance organizers and behavioral objectives tended to be specific, ignore challenge, and have no notions of what would be deemed as success in attaining the objective.

Concept mapping involves the development of graphical representations of the conceptual structure of the content to be learnt.

The importance of concept mapping relates to its emphasis on summarizing the main ideas in what is to be learnt—although only if the students have some familiarity with the surface knowledge of the (often deeper) concept to be mapped.

Concept mapping can assist in synthesizing and identifying the major ideas, themes, and interrelationships— particularly for the learners who do not have these organizing and synthesizing skills. Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, and Wei (2004) argued that the visual displays of information such as those provided by concept mapping enhance the reading comprehension of students with learning difficulties, possibly by helping these students organize the verbal information and thereby improving their recall.

Nesbit and Adesope also found that there was little difference between concept mapping and asking students to construct an outline of the topic (d = 0.19),

but the effects were larger for concept mapping when compared to lectures or discussions on the topic (d = 0.74).

the strongest effects are when students provided the terms for the maps, regardless of who then devised the maps. Kim et al. (2004), however, found higher effects for teacher- than student-generated maps, whereas Nesbit and Adesope (2006) found higher effects when students were made to construct (d = 0.81), rather than just study, concept maps (d = 0.37).

“by arranging nodes in two-dimensional space to represent relatedness,

Cartesian graph

consolidating all references to a concept in a single symbol,

Cartesian graph key based on unit outcomes

explicitly labeling links to identify relation...

Notes on notes=explicit

understand what the teacher is using as the criteria for judging their work, and, of course, to ensure that the teacher is clear about the criteria that will determine if the learning intentions have been successfully achieved.

but not how the teacher is going to judge their performance,

when or whether they have been...

so the reader can understand the feel of the jungle and the light of the jungle”.

Bloom (1968) defined mastery in terms of behavioral objectives, with class instruction supplemented by feedback or correction mechanisms.

The important variable in mastery learning is the time required to reach the levels of attainment.

Willett et al. (1983) reviewed a dozen different innovations in teaching strategies, and mastery learning had the highest effects.

worked examples (Crissman,

Worked examples typically consist of a problem statement and the appropriate steps to the solution.

they reduce the cognitive load for students such that they concentrate on the processes that lead to the correct answer and not just providing an ...

programs were close to this average: intra-example features (such as multiple examples, story variation, example/problem pairs) had an effect size of d = 0.52;