During his war address in April, Wilson had delivered a warning to foreign-born residents who had neglected to become American citizens, vowing to use the “firm hand of stern repression” in all cases of “disloyalty.” Millions of Americans had responded to his call by purging their communities of all things German: no more Beethoven or Wagner, no more German-language instruction, no more “sauerkraut” or “hamburgers” (instead, Americans ate “liberty cabbage” and “liberty sandwiches”).
