Ballinger’s ACARS messages marked the first direct warnings56 of danger to planes by United Airlines or American Airlines, or from air traffic control, for that matter. To be certain that his warnings reached the pilots, Ballinger sent them57 as both digital messages, with a chime, and as printed-out text messages. He knew that every cockpit contained a fire ax,58 located behind the first officer’s seat. Ballinger expected pilots who received his message to move the hammer-sized weapon to the floor near their feet, for easy access, to defend their planes, their lives, and the innocents on
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