Refuting a claim generally means showing that it’s inconsistent with something—with the facts, or with logical rules, or with other things you say. This last type of inconsistency is the one Socrates most likes to use, and it’s distinctly convincing. If someone shows that your views are in conflict with new information, you might doubt the data. When your beliefs are in conflict with each other, it’s uncomfortable in a more direct way. You can’t attack the author of the study.
