Powers and Thrones: A New History of the Middle Ages

by Dan Jones

who formed the conquering armies were largely kept separate from the populace, garrisoned in military towns and paid a stipend known as the ata, funded by taxation. They were not, however, rewarded with tracts of land or confiscated estates, a policy that helped reduce civil tension in the short term, and in the long run meant that the Muslim armies did not blend over a couple of generations into the local population, in the Roman fashion. The roots of this tolerance for conquered people who submitted without resistance was of course not original: it had been, in essence, the package offered by the generals of the Roman Republic and early empire.22 Pragmatic acceptance of local practices—at least in the short term—has always been an effective way of pursuing military expansion without provoking long insurgencies. Yet in the seventh century the offer of religious tolerance may have had particular appeal. Given the poisonous sectarian violence that had swirled around the Christian world in Byzantium, the arrival of a new ruling power that cared little for the tortuous debates over reconciling Christ’s spiritual and human natures—one that taxed unbelievers, rather than persecuting them—may have come as blessed relief. This is not to say, however, that the Arab conquests were wholly heartfelt and peaceful. Cities and tribes that resisted the Muslim armies forfeited their right to be welcomed into the fold in an orderly fashion. During the wars in Arabia, Muhammad had approved ...