Anyone with the potential to resist was fair game. And unconditional surrender was the goal, which justified nearly any act. These were “methods which have proved successful in our Indian campaigns in the West,” Elihu Root, secretary of war in the period, explained (a view of no pertinence to his later Nobel Prize as enthusiast for transatlantic arbitration). And practices worsened when General Arthur MacArthur, Jr., succeeded Morris as governor, as the U.S. effort devolved into the kind of counterinsurgency farther south that MacArthur had personally led on the northern island of Luzon before
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