removal to Bantustans under indirect rule; on the other, direct rule in cities—the South African government reversed the trend of African urbanization without depriving urban industry of labor. The grand design of urban removal, as Tom Lodge puts it, was “to restructure the industrial workforce into one composed principally of migrant labour,” thereby ensuring economic output while undercutting African organizing.27 By 1990 half of South Africa’s black population lived in the Bantustans.28 A large slice of the black population was the victim of forced removals between 1960 and 1985: an
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