With the economy booming, Africans were moving into cities for work. And when they arrived, some of them organized into unions demanding better pay and treatment. The presence of African agitators in urban South Africa—and the threat they posed to the economic interests of whites—was a crisis in need of solution. Apartheid was that solution: an effort artificially to retribalize millions of natives by forcibly settling them in homelands, renamed Bantustans, which would be administered under the tightened fist of native authorities. Africans could return to cities as migrant laborers, but they
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