What might work to reduce noise in medicine? As we mentioned, training can increase skill, and skill certainly helps. So does the aggregation of multiple expert judgments (second opinions and so forth). Algorithms offer an especially promising avenue, and doctors are now using deep-learning algorithms and artificial intelligence to reduce noise. For example, such algorithms have been used to detect lymph node metastases in women with breast cancer. The best of these have been found to be superior to the best pathologist, and, of course, algorithms are not noisy. Deep-learning algorithms have
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