In Confucius’ lifetime, the war-torn multi-state system under Zhou lordship was breaking down, and it became clear that long-term stability lay in some kind of political unity. It is in this context that Confucius’ career as a thinker is to be understood. He was probably the first to suggest the advantages of a unified rule over ‘All Under Heaven’. Referring to a violent usurpation in his native state of Lu in 505–502 BCE, Confucius said this: When the Way prevails under Heaven, rites, music and punitive expeditions are ordered by the Son of Heaven. When there is no Way under Heaven, rites,
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