American companies, towns, and cities were proving themselves to be massively vulnerable. Even a short list of recent cyberattacks—the Russian compromise of the Pentagon’s classified and unclassified networks in 2008; a series of 2009 North Korean attacks that jammed the websites of the Treasury Department, the Secret Service, the Federal Trade Commission, the Department of Transportation, the Nasdaq, and the New York Stock Exchange; the nonstop Chinese raids on American military and trade secrets—illustrated the problem. Any adversary that wanted to do U.S. interests harm in the cyber realm
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