they mirror (and, at times, dip below) those of non-citizen immigrants within the United States. This extraordinary development has coincided with the criminalization of immigration in the United States, resulting in a new class of “illegal immigrants” and “aliens” who are viewed and treated as criminals. Immigration violations that were once treated as minor civil infractions are now crimes. And everyday legal infractions, ranging from shoplifting to marijuana possession to traffic violations, now routinely trigger one of the state’s most devastating sanctions—deportation.
