Materialist neuroscientists assume that memory traces are stored in the brain, although they have never been able to explain how this is accomplished (Braude, 2006; Gauld, 2007). Recently Takashi Kitamura et al. (2017) claimed to find evidence that long-term memories are consolidated in the neocortex, but this would not allow for learning by more primitive organisms. Tal Shomrat and Michael Levin (2013) trained planarian flatworms to find a food
