IN POLITICS, THE equivalents of strong unions in the post–World War II era in North America and Europe were mass-membership parties. Despite the beginnings of suburbanization, national politicians were still connected with local voters by several layers of regional, urban, and neighborhood party officials—urban “bosses” and rural “courthouse gangs” in the United States. Intellectuals tended to sneer at these provincial power brokers, some of whom were indeed ignorant or corrupt or racist. But the existence of this layer of petty tribunes ensured that politicians would not ignore the interests
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