Entangled Life: How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds and Shape Our Futures

by Merlin Sheldrake

honey fungi, or Armillaria, which are among the largest organisms in the world. The current record holder, in Oregon, weighs hundreds of tonnes, spills across 10 square kilometres, and is somewhere between 2,000 and 8,000 years old. There are probably many larger, older specimens that remain undiscovered.

honey fungi, or Armillaria, which are among the largest organisms in the world. The current record holder, in Oregon, weighs hundreds of tonnes, spills across 10 square kilometres, and is somewhere between 2,000 and 8,000 years old. There are probably many larger, older specimens that remain undiscovered.

like truffles, produce aromas that have made them among the most expensive foods in the world.

like truffles, produce aromas that have made them among the most expensive foods in the world.

shaggy ink cap mushrooms (Coprinus comatus), can push their way through asphalt and lift heavy paving stones, although they are not themselves a tough material. Pick an ink cap and you can fry it up and eat it. Leave it in a jar, and its bright white flesh will deliquesce into a pitch-black ink over the course of a few days

shaggy ink cap mushrooms (Coprinus comatus), can push their way through asphalt and lift heavy paving stones, although they are not themselves a tough material. Pick an ink cap and you can fry it up and eat it. Leave it in a jar, and its bright white flesh will deliquesce into a pitch-black ink over the course of a few days

leafcutter ants. Colonies can reach sizes of over eight million individuals, with underground nests that grow larger than 30 metres across. The lives of leafcutter ants revolve around a fungus which they cultivate in cavernous chambers and feed with fragments of leaf.8

leafcutter ants. Colonies can reach sizes of over eight million individuals, with underground nests that grow larger than 30 metres across. The lives of leafcutter ants revolve around a fungus which they cultivate in cavernous chambers and feed with fragments of leaf.8

the rice blast fungus ruins a quantity of rice large enough to feed more than sixty million people every year.

the rice blast fungus ruins a quantity of rice large enough to feed more than sixty million people every year.

The widespread use of antifungal chemicals has led to an unprecedented rise in new fungal superbugs that threaten both human and plant health.

The widespread use of antifungal chemicals has led to an unprecedented rise in new fungal superbugs that threaten both human and plant health.

fungus that infects amphibians – has been spread around the world by human trade. It has driven ninety species of amphibian to extinction and threatens to wipe out over a hundred more.

fungus that infects amphibians – has been spread around the world by human trade. It has driven ninety species of amphibian to extinction and threatens to wipe out over a hundred more.

The variety of banana that accounts for 99 per cent of global banana shipments, the Cavendish, is being decimated by a fungal disease and faces extinction in the coming decades.9

The variety of banana that accounts for 99 per cent of global banana shipments, the Cavendish, is being decimated by a fungal disease and faces extinction in the coming decades.9

In 2017, researchers reconstructed the diets of Neanderthals, cousins of modern humans who went extinct approximately 50,000 years ago. They found that an individual with a dental abscess had been eating a type of fungus, a penicillin-producing mould, implying knowledge of its antibiotic properties.

In 2017, researchers reconstructed the diets of Neanderthals, cousins of modern humans who went extinct approximately 50,000 years ago. They found that an individual with a dental abscess had been eating a type of fungus, a penicillin-producing mould, implying knowledge of its antibiotic properties.

‘the Iceman’, an exquisitely well-preserved Neolithic corpse found in glacial ice, dating from around 5,000 years ago. On the day he died, the Iceman was carrying a pouch stuffed with wads of the tinder fungus (Fomes fomentarius) that he almost certainly used to make fire, and carefully prepared fragments of the birch polypore mushroom (Fomitopsis betulina) most probably used as a medicine.

‘the Iceman’, an exquisitely well-preserved Neolithic corpse found in glacial ice, dating from around 5,000 years ago. On the day he died, the Iceman was carrying a pouch stuffed with wads of the tinder fungus (Fomes fomentarius) that he almost certainly used to make fire, and carefully prepared fragments of the birch polypore mushroom (Fomitopsis betulina) most probably used as a medicine.

The indigenous peoples of Australia treated wounds with moulds harvested from the shaded side of eucalyptus trees. The Jewish Talmud features a mould cure known as ‘chamka’, consisting of mouldy corn soaked in date wine. Ancient Egyptian papyruses from 1500 BCE refer to the curative properties of mould, and in 1640 the King’s herbalist in London, John Parkinson, described the use of moulds to treat wounds.

The indigenous peoples of Australia treated wounds with moulds harvested from the shaded side of eucalyptus trees. The Jewish Talmud features a mould cure known as ‘chamka’, consisting of mouldy corn soaked in date wine. Ancient Egyptian papyruses from 1500 BCE refer to the curative properties of mould, and in 1640 the King’s herbalist in London, John Parkinson, described the use of moulds to treat wounds.

although fungi have long been lumped together with plants, they are actually more closely related to animals

although fungi have long been lumped together with plants, they are actually more closely related to animals

At a molecular level, fungi and humans are similar enough to benefit from many of the same biochemical innovations.

At a molecular level, fungi and humans are similar enough to benefit from many of the same biochemical innovations.

psilocybin (the active component in psychedelic mushrooms recently shown in clinical trials to be capable of lifting severe depression and anxiety).

psilocybin (the active component in psychedelic mushrooms recently shown in clinical trials to be capable of lifting severe depression and anxiety).

Sixty per cent of the enzymes used in industry are generated by fungi, and 15 per cent of all vaccines are produced by engineered strains of yeast.

Sixty per cent of the enzymes used in industry are generated by fungi, and 15 per cent of all vaccines are produced by engineered strains of yeast.

Citric acid, produced by fungi, is used in al...

Citric acid, produced by fungi, is used in al...

edible fungi is booming, and projected to increase from $42 billion in 2018 to $69 billion by 2024. Sales of medicina...

edible fungi is booming, and projected to increase from $42 billion in 2018 to $69 billion by 2024. Sales of medicina...

Antiviral compounds produced by fungal mycelium reduce colony collapse disorder in honeybees.

Antiviral compounds produced by fungal mycelium reduce colony collapse disorder in honeybees.

break down pollutants such as crude oil from oil spills, in a process known as ‘mycoremediation’. In ‘mycofiltration’, contaminated water is passed through mats of mycelium which filter out heavy metals and break down toxins. In ‘mycofabrication’, building materials and textiles are grown out of mycelium and replace plastics and leather in many applications.

break down pollutants such as crude oil from oil spills, in a process known as ‘mycoremediation’. In ‘mycofiltration’, contaminated water is passed through mats of mycelium which filter out heavy metals and break down toxins. In ‘mycofabrication’, building materials and textiles are grown out of mycelium and replace plastics and leather in many applications.

Fungal melanins, the pigments produced by radio-tolerant fungi, are a promising new source of radi...

there are between 2.2 and 3.8 million species of fungi in the world –

there are between 2.2 and 3.8 million species of fungi in the world –

a mere 6 per cent of all fungal species have been described.

a mere 6 per cent of all fungal species have been described.

Our perceptions work in large part by expectation. It takes less cognitive effort to make sense of the world using preconceived images updated with a small amount of new sensory information than to constantly form entirely new perceptions from scratch.

Our perceptions work in large part by expectation. It takes less cognitive effort to make sense of the world using preconceived images updated with a small amount of new sensory information than to constantly form entirely new perceptions from scratch.

You carry around more microbes than your ‘own’ cells.

You carry around more microbes than your ‘own’ cells.

There are more bacteria in your gut than stars in our galaxy.

There are more bacteria in your gut than stars in our galaxy.

Even bacteria have viruses within them (a nanobiome?). Even viruses can contain smaller viruses (a picobiome?). Symbiosis is a ubiquitous feature of life.