The dominant narrative in the United States and western Europe since the development of evolutionary theory in the late nineteenth century was one of conflict and competition, and it mirrored views of human social progress within an industrial capitalist system. Examples of organisms cooperating with one another to their mutual benefit “remained close to the margins of polite biological society,” in Sapp’s words. Mutualistic relationships, such as those that give rise to lichens, or plants’ relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, were curious exceptions to the rule—where they were acknowledged
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