Consider the case of a seventeen-year-old who received top honors in an US Air Force–sponsored hacking competition for finding 30 valid vulnerabilities. The field included 272 security researchers who discovered a total of 207 vulnerabilities.59 While the individual was obviously quite skilled and the label “untrained” does not exactly pertain, his skills did not require state capabilities to develop. Fields with the highest cost of or barriers to entry have the greatest potential for being monitored and controlled. Nuclear technologies, which require specialized processed materials, fall into
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