Stigler has now been researching these ideas for decades, and he suggests his findings can be distilled to three stages of good teaching:11 Productive struggle: Long periods of confusion as students wrestle with complex concepts beyond their current understanding. Making connections: When undergoing that intellectual struggle, students are encouraged to use comparisons and analogies, helping them to see underlying patterns between different concepts. This ensures that the confusion leads to a useful lesson – rather than simply ending in frustration. Deliberate practice: Once the initial
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