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as well as Joel’s locust vision heralding the Day of the Lord (Joel 1:4–
The Abyss serves the function of a temporary prison, where Asael resides until the final judgment, when all the fallen stars will be thrown into a fiery abyss (1 En. 90:24).
This essay seeks to illuminate this strange episode by showing how heavenly beings and heavenly books function, both independently and in tandem, within another Jewish apocalyptic work—the book of Jubilees.
is not an apocalypse by genre—rather, it is rewritten Scripture. However, the book contains many themes shared by the apocalypses (esp. 1 Enoch), so it is widely considered apocalyptic in its theological orientation.1
“the heavenly book motif,” as Leslie Baynes explains, “always functions to grant divine authority to whatever claim is asserted by the text that appeals to it.”4
This is a bizarre scene, but clarity comes when one realizes that John is once again echoing the earliest parts of Ezekiel, where the prophet receives a similar commissioning from the enthroned figure: “ ‘Son of man, eat this scroll
We are never told the precise content of John’s scroll, but the same probably is true in his case, since John must prophesy to and about unrepentant nations and kings (cf. 9:20–21).
John receives God’s message, experiences its effects—both the joy (sweetness) of salvation and the anguish (bitterness) of judgment—
Ezra—“the Man from the Sea” (13:1–58)4—Ezra sees a man arise from the sea, who flies with the clouds, and whose voice melts those who hear it as if exposed to flame.
nothing was seen of the innumerable multitude but only the dust of ashes and smell of smoke” (13:10b-11). Following the victory, the man descends the mountain and calls forth a peaceful multitude (13:12–13).
Immediate Judgment. After an extended request (13:14–24), the vision is interpreted, identifying the man from the sea as God’s son (13:26, 32) whose appearance will bring bewilderment upon the earth and rouse military conflict. In addition to national conflicts (13:31–32), the man unites these forces against him (13:33–34).
The militaristic and triumphant messiah of 4 Ezra 13 and the two witnesses in Revelation 11 share a number of thematic similarities.
Connecting the actions of Revelation’s witnesses to an eschatological figure in a nearly contemporaneous work unburdens the witnesses from the hegemony of the unfamiliar in ways that help us comprehend what is at the outset a challenging text.
acceptance of a spirit of life from God (11:11). The witnesses model Revelation’s response to eschatological violence and the consequences of cosmic warfare: passive resistance despite aggressive options leads to eventual victory wrought through the agency of God.
The militaristic messiah of 4 Ezra differs from the passive models of resistance inherent in Revelation’s messiah (a slain lamb) and its construal of effective prophetic witness.
Despite the lack of direct literary relationships between Revelation 11 and 4 Ezra 13, these texts share a number of conceptual similarities that contextualize the acts of the two witnesses and the consequences of their actions.
as well as the surprise that they are defeated by the beast.
Satan disguises himself with the brilliance of an angel in his second effort to entice Eve to turn from the path of the Lord (Vita 9:1–5; cf. “messenger of light,” 2 Cor 11:14).
The devil responds with a threat of utter rebellion in which he states he “will set his throne about the stars of heaven and will be like the Most High” (15:3).
The fall of Satan from heaven is given no clear explanation in John’s Apocalypse, but the Life of Adam and Eve provides some background as to why the war broke out in heaven and why Satan and his angels are cast down to earth.
This is how apocalyptic beast visions work: they concern the conflict between oppressive political powers and the kingdom of God. These depictions of political realities, as with all apocalyptic imagery, function not as a coded system of symbols that can be neatly unpacked
into prose, but as transformative imagery that changes how we imagine our world and its systems. They are a powerful form of anti-imperial political theology exposing deceptive imperial propaganda.
a standard symbol for the Roman Empire.5 The series of wings and heads indicate the succession of emperors from Julius Caesar to the end of the Flavian dynasty.6
Preserved on a wall in the ruins of Pompeii is a romantic confession: “I love her whose number is 545.” This ancient graffito is an example of a commonly used practice called gematria. In ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, letters were used for numbers, and fun could be had in giving numerical values to words and names. The letters of “Caesar Nero” (neron̄ kaisar), transliterated into Hebrew from Greek and their values added together, gives 666.10 Most interestingly, the alternative spelling in Greek (nerō kaisar) gives 616—precisely the variant we find in some manuscripts of Revelation 13:18.
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It reshapes how these powers are imagined, not as the bringers of “peace and security” they claim to be,11 but as blasphemous beasts. The relationship between them drives this imaginative critique still deeper.
In conclusion, reading Revelation 13 in the context of 4 Ezra 11 provides some interesting insights. Like Daniel before them, they both portray empire in bestial and arrogant imagery, transforming the Christian political imagination. They are excellent examples of how such imagery should be read. Endless decodings and wild speculation have plagued modern interpretation, as interpreters seek to work out which modern political leader is encoded by Revelation’s beast. Comparison with other apocalypses, such as 4 Ezra, helps us to see that the primary reference for this imagery is found in the
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The end of Book 6 contains the famous lines telling how the “golden age” will be brought about by the rule of Augustus, the “son of a god.”
Undergirding this sharp distinction is the eschatological reality of judgment. All nations are called to “fear God and give him glory, because the hour of his judgment has come” (14:7).
The righteous struggle now but will be blessed later, whereas the unrighteous appear to flourish now but will receive the fullness of God’s wrath soon.
But why does John refer to only seven plagues rather than all ten?
Indeed, seven plagues are not explicitly mentioned anywhere else in the Old or New Testament outside of Leviticus (26:18, 21, 24, 28 = God will punish Israel “seven times over”) and Revelation (15:1, 6, 8; 21:9 = “the seven angels with the seven plagues”).3 Richard Bauckham offers an especially intriguing study on the relationship of John’s septets to Leviticus 26. He notes that there are in fact four septets of plagues in Revelation, not just three. In addition to the three septets of seals, trumpets, and bowls, one should also include the septet of thunders (10:3–7), which is found in
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John, therefore, is evoking Israel’s return from exile as he envisions the salvation of the great multitude.
Leviticus 26 promises that a remnant will survive the plagues and God will be faithful to his covenant. As seen in Words of the Luminaries, remnant theology in Leviticus appears to attract Jewish communities who conceived of themselves as theologically in exile. In Revelation 7:5–8, the twelve tribes of Israel are idealized (12 x 12,000) and depict the “true Israel” (= the Christian church) and this, in turn, evokes remnant imagery (cf. Rom 9:27–29; 11:4–6). The twelve tribes of Revelation 7, in light of Ezekiel 48:1–29, suggest that a characteristic of remnant ideology is the reunification of
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In Revelation 5, the lamb that has been slain is not only the paschal lamb but also a way of recalling Israel’s exodus from Egypt. The non-explicit use of exodus traditions in Revelation 5 depicts the liberation of the faithful from universal enslavement through the death of Christ, who is the Passover sacrifice.6 Later, when the woman flees from the dragon to the wilderness (Rev 12:6) where she is nourished, this is reminiscent of God’s provision of quail and manna (Exod 16). Here too the dragon sends forth a river of water to drown the woman, but the earth swallows it up to save her
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Words of the Luminaries suggests that John drew upon a wider pastiche of scriptural traditions that includes Leviticus 26 with Exodus, which are used together to reflect on exile.
In both Words of the Luminaries and Revelation, the communities of the respective authors are set within narratives related to the exodus; however, one looks more to the past and the other to the future. Nonetheless, Words of the Luminaries allows us to see subtler themes in Revelation, especially allusions to community living in exile and God’s faithfulness to bring about deliverance.
When she returns, she is told to remove her veil, for she is accepted by God, her name is written in a heavenly book, she will be renewed, and she will “eat blessed bread
Its main question is the one begged in Genesis—what is a good Jewish boy like Joseph doing marrying the daughter of a pagan priest? The answer is that the marriage is God’s will, because gentiles can be incorporated into Israel.
Here is a tale of separation, transformation and inclusion, and the mysterious correlation between heaven and earth.
In contrast, Aseneth is associated with heavenly Repentance: her name has been written in the book from the beginning. Aseneth is worried that her people will reject her because she has turned to the living God, but the story does not in fact bear this out—God protects her from harm, and her marriage to Joseph is a joy to Egypt,
In parallel, these two figures show us the dynamic shared by solemn biblical texts and
ancient writings composed for entertainment—God lifts up the humble and casts down the arrogant.
have sinned, Lord, I have sinned; “I sit enthroned as queen. I am not a widow; I will never mourn.” (18:7b) Before you I have sinned much, Until Joseph the Powerful One of God came. A mighty angel picked up a boulder . . . and threw it into the sea, and said: . . .
taken by the first-century readers as a transparent reference to Imperial Rome (Rev 17:9). The intended identity of Rome as Babylon the Great is confirmed by the description of the patron-client relationship of the city with the kings of the earth, and Rome’s function as the economic center and the beneficiary of the wealth of the imperial system that is vividly described in 18:1–24.
The Epistle of Enoch “IN THE DAYS OF YOUR AFFLUENCE, YOU COMMITTED OPPRESSION”
Consequences for the Wicked. Discourse One (94:6–104:8) is riddled with specific consequences for the wicked for their use and abuse of wealth that are parallel to John’s letter to the seven churches. Of course, the negative consequences are part and parcel of the proclamations of “Woe.” Retribution is certain because it is linked to a failure to understand one’s primary relationship to God and to recognize his lordship:
Those who are condemned as “bedfellows with sinners” in 1 Enoch 97:4 correspond to the collaborating nations and client kings across the Roman Empire who are depicted as committing fornication with Rome (Rev 18:3). The introduction of the merchants of the earth in 18:3 characterizes them as the wicked in the light of 1 Enoch, because they “have grown rich from the power of [Rome’s] luxury,” which is a succinct pejorative collocation of wealth, oppressive power, and luxury. In 18:23, merchants are called the magnates, or aristocrats, of the earth because they are given the place of honor and
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John is urging people to keep a distance from the ways of Rome (the way of the wicked) rather than to physically flee a city.5 Separation from Rome would consist of rejecting involvement in the imperial system. It is a call to resist imperial power, systemic injustice, economic collaboration, compromise with the lifestyle of luxury, and the underlying idolatry that are specified as the way of the wicked for Asia Minor.6
Consequences and Lament. Both the indictments of Rome and the consequences correspond in content to the Epistle of Enoch. John emphatically calls for repercussions consistent with Rome’s offenses and even a double repayment of them (Rev 18:6). He specifically charges both Rome and the kings of the earth with living luxuriously (18:7, 9). He shows that Rome
Rome by the seven cities in which the designated readers lived.7
