The decades in which McNamara rose from business school professor, to Ford Motor Company executive, to Secretary of Defense, and finally to president of the World Bank also saw the transformation of American business schools. In an earlier era, business schools had focused on preparing their students for jobs in particular industries and enterprises. From the 1950s onward, the business school ideal became the general manager, equipped with a set of skills that were independent of particular industries. The core of managerial expertise was now defined as a distinct set of skills and techniques,
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