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April 17 - May 13, 2023
Distinct from mere Socialism, True Communism was the Marxist utopia: “a classless society that contains limitless possibilities for human achievement,” an egalitarian dream of self-government by the people.
Distinct from mere Socialism, True Communism was the Marxist utopia: “a classless society that contains limitless possibilities for human achievement,” an egalitarian dream of self-government by the people.
the center of every atom is a nucleus—unimaginably dense, as if six billion cars were crushed together into a small suitcase—and
the center of every atom is a nucleus—unimaginably dense, as if six billion cars were crushed together into a small suitcase—and
sixty-four kilograms of uranium
sixty-four kilograms of uranium
The bomb itself was extremely inefficient: just one kilogram of the uranium underwent fission, and only seven hundred milligrams of mass—the weight of a butterfly—was converted into energy.
The bomb itself was extremely inefficient: just one kilogram of the uranium underwent fission, and only seven hundred milligrams of mass—the weight of a butterfly—was converted into energy.
Some seventy-eight thousand people died instantly, or immediately afterward—vaporized, crushed, or incinerated in the firestorm that followed the blast wave.
Some seventy-eight thousand people died instantly, or immediately afterward—vaporized, crushed, or incinerated in the firestorm that followed the blast wave.
by the end of the year, another twenty-five thousand men, women, and children would also sicken and die from their exposure to the radiation liberat...
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by the end of the year, another twenty-five thousand men, women, and children would also sicken and die from their exposure to the radiation liberat...
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plutonium 239 sheds two protons and two neutrons from its nucleus to become uranium 235.
plutonium 239 sheds two protons and two neutrons from its nucleus to become uranium 235.
The granite used to build the US Capitol is so radioactive that the building would fail federal safety codes regulating nuclear power plants.
The granite used to build the US Capitol is so radioactive that the building would fail federal safety codes regulating nuclear power plants.
All living tissue is radioactive to some degree: human beings, like bananas, emit radiation because both contain small amounts of the radioisotope potassium 40; muscle contains more potassium 40 than other tissue, so men are generally more radioactive than women. Brazil nuts, with a thousand times the average concentration of radium of any organic product, are the world’s most radioactive food.
All living tissue is radioactive to some degree: human beings, like bananas, emit radiation because both contain small amounts of the radioisotope potassium 40; muscle contains more potassium 40 than other tissue, so men are generally more radioactive than women. Brazil nuts, with a thousand times the average concentration of radium of any organic product, are the world’s most radioactive food.
Radon 222, which gathers as a gas in unventilated basements, releases alpha particles into the lungs, where it causes cancer.
Radon 222, which gathers as a gas in unventilated basements, releases alpha particles into the lungs, where it causes cancer.
Polonium 210, a powerful alpha emitter, is one of the carcinogens in cigarette smoke. It was also the poison slipped into the cup of tea that killed former FSB agent Alexander Litvinenko in London in 2006.
Polonium 210, a powerful alpha emitter, is one of the carcinogens in cigarette smoke. It was also the poison slipped into the cup of tea that killed former FSB agent Alexander Litvinenko in London in 2006.
Mistaken by the body for essential elements, beta-emitting radioisotopes can become fatally concentrated in specific organs: strontium 90, a member of the same chemical family as calcium, is retained in the bones; ruthenium is absorbed by the intestine; iodine 131 lodges particularly in the thyroid of children, where it can cause cancer.
Mistaken by the body for essential elements, beta-emitting radioisotopes can become fatally concentrated in specific organs: strontium 90, a member of the same chemical family as calcium, is retained in the bones; ruthenium is absorbed by the intestine; iodine 131 lodges particularly in the thyroid of children, where it can cause cancer.
More than eighty years later, Curie’s laboratory notes remain so radioactive that they are kept in a lead-lined box.
More than eighty years later, Curie’s laboratory notes remain so radioactive that they are kept in a lead-lined box.
Because radium can be mixed with other elements to make them glow in the dark, clock makers used it to create fluorescent numbers on watch faces and hired young women to perform the delicate task of painting them. In the watch factories of New Jersey, Connecticut, and Illinois, the Radium Girls were trained to lick the tips of their brushes into a fine point before dipping them into pots of radium paint. When the jaws and skeletons of the first girls began to rot and disintegrate, their employers suggested they were suffering from syphilis. A successful lawsuit revealed that their managers had
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Because radium can be mixed with other elements to make them glow in the dark, clock makers used it to create fluorescent numbers on watch faces and hired young women to perform the delicate task of painting them. In the watch factories of New Jersey, Connecticut, and Illinois, the Radium Girls were trained to lick the tips of their brushes into a fine point before dipping them into pots of radium paint. When the jaws and skeletons of the first girls began to rot and disintegrate, their employers suggested they were suffering from syphilis. A successful lawsuit revealed that their managers had
...more
thirty-five thousand died within twenty-four hours;
thirty-five thousand died within twenty-four hours;
Another thirty-seven thousand died within three months.
Another thirty-seven thousand died within three months.
similar number
similar number
This requires three components: a moderator, control rods, and a coolant.
This requires three components: a moderator, control rods, and a coolant.
generating a single watt of electricity requires more than 30 billion fissions every second.
generating a single watt of electricity requires more than 30 billion fissions every second.
Around 99 percent of the neutrons generated in a single fission event are high-energy particles released at enormous speed—“prompt” neutrons that travel at twenty thousand kilometers a second.
Around 99 percent of the neutrons generated in a single fission event are high-energy particles released at enormous speed—“prompt” neutrons that travel at twenty thousand kilometers a second.
continuing the chain reaction, within an average of jus...
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continuing the chain reaction, within an average of jus...
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is much too fast to be controlled by any mechanical means.
is much too fast to be controlled by any mechanical means.
Fortunately, among the remaining 1 percent of neutrons generated in every fission event are a tiny minority released on a timescale more readily perceptible by man, measured in seconds or even minutes. It is only the existence of these delayed neutrons, which emerge slowly enough to respond to human control, that make the operation of a nuclear reactor possible at all.
Fortunately, among the remaining 1 percent of neutrons generated in every fission event are a tiny minority released on a timescale more readily perceptible by man, measured in seconds or even minutes. It is only the existence of these delayed neutrons, which emerge slowly enough to respond to human control, that make the operation of a nuclear reactor possible at all.
To generate electricity, the uranium fuel inside a reactor must become hot enough to turn water into steam but not so hot that the fuel itself starts to melt.
To generate electricity, the uranium fuel inside a reactor must become hot enough to turn water into steam but not so hot that the fuel itself starts to melt.
In reactors that use water as both coolant and moderator, as the volume of steam increases, fewer neutrons are slowed, so reactivity falls. If too much steam forms—or even if the coolant leaks out entirely—the chain reaction stops, and the reactor shuts itself down. This negative void coefficient acts like a dead man’s handle on the reactor, a safety feature of the water-water designs common in the West.
In reactors that use water as both coolant and moderator, as the volume of steam increases, fewer neutrons are slowed, so reactivity falls. If too much steam forms—or even if the coolant leaks out entirely—the chain reaction stops, and the reactor shuts itself down. This negative void coefficient acts like a dead man’s handle on the reactor, a safety feature of the water-water designs common in the West.
