As Tom Tyler, Jonathan Jackson, and Avital Mentovich (2015) describe it, the police moved from working on crimes in progress, or on solving crimes that had previously occurred, to a proactive strategy of preventive measures aimed at deterring future crimes. This more proactive approach to policing has led to more frequent police-initiated nonvoluntary public contacts with the legal system, both through increased stop, question, and frisk activities and via zero-tolerance policies that bring more people within the criminal justice system through arrests, court appearances, and even time in
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