This takes place at the individual level as it affects citizens’ orientation toward government, as intense police scrutiny may alienate people, making them less inclined to participate in politics, as we have reviewed. It also can occur through legal and institutional means. For example, many states prevent citizens with felony convictions from voting. In a number of US states that means as many as 25 percent of black men are barred from the voting booth; a practice Alexander (2010) refers to as “the new Jim Crow.”
